TEACHING: 

ITS   AIMS   AND    METHODS 


BY 


LEVI   SEELEY,   PH.D. 


PROFESSOR  OF  PEDAGOGY  IN  THE  NEW  JERSEY 

STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

AUTHOR  OF  "A  NEW  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT,"  "  THE  FOUNDATIONS  OF 
EDUCATION,"  "ELEMENTARY  PEDAGOGY,"  "THE  GERMAN  COMMON 

SCHOOL  SYSTEM,"  "HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION,"  ETC.  A 


1915 
HINDS,  NOBLE,  &  ELDREDGE,  PUBLISHERS 

30  IRVING  PLACE,  NEW  YORK  CITY 


COPYRIGHT,     IQI  5,    BY 
HINDS,    NOBLE,     &    ELDREDGE 


PREFACE 

TEACHING  has  long  been  made  to  appear  an  occu- 
pation, a  calling,  or  a  trade.  Men  have  engaged  in  it 
as  a  makeshift,  often  a  stepping-stone  to  some  other 
profession.  It  has  been  largely  a  matter  of  experience 
in  which  the  teacher  employed  the  methods  by  which 
he  had  been  taught  as  a  child.  So  long  as  this  was 
the  case  there  could  be  little  progress.  Indeed,  experi- 
ence is  a  costly  schoolmaster,  costly  not  only  for  the 
pupils  upon  whom  experiments  are  made,  and  for  the 
community  that  pays  the  bills,  but  also  for  the  ex- 
perimenter himself.  For  he  can  reach  efficiency  only 
by  a  long  and  tedious  process  and  with  countless  mis- 
takes. Just  as  the  untrained  physician  would  reach 
professional  proficiency  only  at  an  awful  cost  of  human 
life  and  a  fearful  amount  of  suffering,  so  the  untrained 
teacher  must  necessarily  carry  on  his  work  at  a  tre- 
mendous loss.  Hence  normal  schools,  training  schools, 
and  teachers'  colleges  have  been  established  to  prepare 
teachers,  as  medical  schools  and  clinics  have  been 
founded  to  prepare  physicians. 

The  world  has  been  rather  slow  to  grasp  the  idea 
that  teaching  is  a  profession  and  that  teachers  must 
needs  be  trained.  Indeed,  there  are  still  many  boards 
of  education,  especially  in  rural  districts,  that  do  not 
appreciate  this  fact  and  are  willing  to  employ,  because 
they  are  cheap,  teachers  who  are  unprepared.  But 

355238 


iv  PREFACE 

great  strides  have  been  made  in  this  country  during 
the  last  half  century.  In  most  cities  a  professional 
basis  has  already  been  reached,  and  the  rural  com- 
munities are  increasingly  demanding  better  prepared 
teachers. 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  clearly  to  set  forth  what 
teaching  is  and  what  we  have  a  right  to  expect  from 
it,  what  material  should  be  presented  to  the  pupils, 
what  method  employed,  and  what  the  product  should 
be.  It  is  not  designed  to  outline  courses  of  study 
in  the  various  subjects  treated.  That  would  be  too 
large  an  undertaking.  Nor  would  it  be  wise,  at 
least  in  many  subjects,  because  each  community  and 
each  school  must  suit  its  curriculum  to  its  particular 
needs.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  future  courses  of 
study  will  allow  greater  freedom,  not  only  for  the 
school,  but  also  for  the  individual.  The  ideal  will  be 
reached  when  the  courses  of  study  are  so  flexible 
that  each  child  can  be  given  the  kind  of  intellectual 
food  that  he  can  digest  and  that  will  best  fit  him  for 
the  life  he  is  to  live,  that  will  take  into  account  his 
individual  capacity.  The  attempt  is  made,  however, 
to  discover  and  elucidate  the  underlying  principles  of 
teaching,  to  indicate  the  material  to  choose,  to  suggest 
the  methods  that  are  best,  and  to  show  how  to  deter- 
mine the  value  of  the  results.  Every  teacher  should 
clearly  understand  these  things  else  the  work  will  be 
largely  perfunctory  or  experimental. 

It  is  hoped  that  students  of  normal  schools  and 
training  schools  and  of  other  institutions  whose  pur- 
pose it  is  to  train  teachers  will  find  in  this  book  stimu- 
lating and  suggestive  material  to  aid  them  in  their 


PREFACE  V 

practice  and  method  work,  and  also  to  open  up  to  them 
the  great  problems  of  education  that  they  are  studying. 

Then,  too,  there  are  many  reading  circles,  teachers' 
clubs,  and  other  organizations  engaged  in  studying 
educational  works  and  theories.  The  design  here  is  to 
suggest  an  abundance  of  material  for  their  study, 
criticism,  and  discussion.  Such  work  is  encouraged  by 
superintendents  and  boards  of  education,  and  in  many 
cases,  made  the  basis  of  promotion. 

Finally,  I  have  not  been  unmindful  of  the  needs  of 
the  lonely  district  school  teacher  who  has  but  little 
suggestive  supervision  and  who  cannot  join  with  others 
for  study,  mutual  criticism,  and  stimulating  help. 
There  are  many  young  teachers  in  this  condition,  who 
have  lofty  ambitions  and  high  purpose,  and  yet  who 
do  not  know  how  to  set  about  self-improvement  in 
the  profession  they  have  chosen.  Many  of  these  have 
gained  the  notion  that  works  on  education  are  dry, 
hard  to  understand,  and  withal  of  little  practical 
use  to  them  in  their  work.  There  is  no  reason  why 
educational  literature  should  be  dry  or  difficult  to  com- 
prehend. It  deals  with  the  most  interesting  and  sug- 
gestive questions,  as  well  as  the  most  important  ones, 
namely,  those  concerned  with  the  development  of  the 
boys  and  girls,  the  future  men  and  women  of  our  land. 

I  therefore  make  no  apology  for  not  seeking  to  be 
profound.  If  my  readers  understand  my  meaning;  if 
they  find  the  discussions  stimulating  and  helpful;  if 
they  are  aided  in  the  great  work  to  which  they  have 
consecrated  themselves;  if  they  gain  a  nobler  concep- 
tion of  this  work;  if  they  see  a  little  more  clearly  how 
to  perform  that  work;  and  if  they  are  shown  how  to 


VI  PREFACE 

understand,  how  to  appreciate,  how  to  help  little  chil- 
dren, then  I  shall  have  accomplished  my  purpose. 

I  desire  to  acknowledge  the  valuable  assistance  given 
me  by  Prof.  Frank  H.  Scobey,  chair  of  Mathematics, 
and  Miss  Margaret  S.  Cochran,  chair  of  Domestic 
Science,  both  of  the  State  Normal  School,  Trenton, 
N.J. 

LEVI  SEELEY 
STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 
TRENTON,  N.  J. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

WHAT  is  TEACHING? 

I.  Teaching  is  a  science.  —  Science  denned.  —  Reasons  for  classi- 
fying as  a  science:  i.  Because  of  accumulated  and  established 
knowledge. —  2.  Because  of  scientific  works  on  education. —  3. 
Because  of  organizations  for  the  study  of  education. — 4.  Be- 
cause of  institutions  maintained  for  the  scientific  study  of 
education.  —  5.  Because  it  is  recognized  as  a  science.  — 
II.  Teaching  is  an  art.  —  Christ's  method  a  model:  i.  It  was 
suited  to  his  hearers. —  2.  It  abounded  in  concrete  illustrations. 
—  3.  It  drew  from  nature  and  from  environment.  — 4.  It  was 
simple  and  yet  logical.  —  5.  It  exalted  the  truth.  —  6.  It  was 
authoritative.  —  7.  It  was  sympathetic.  —  III.  Definition  of 
teaching:  i.  Knowledge  the  first  essential.  —  2.  Power  to  im- 
part. —  3.  The  old-time  teacher.  —  4.  Manner  of  imparting.  — 
5.  The  German  method. 


CHAPTER  II 

MOTIVES  FOR  BECOMING  A  TEACHER 22 

The  need  of  teachers.  —  The  untrained  teacher.  —  Motives.  —  i . 
Earning  of  a  livelihood.  —  Many  new  teachers.  —  2.  The 
desire  for  self-improvement.  —  3.  The  patriotic  motive. —  4. 
The  altruistic  motive. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  TEACHER 38 

The  "born"  teacher.  —  Need  of  growth  while  teaching.  —  Means 
of  development:  I.  Reading.  —  (a)  Educational  journals — 
(b)  Pedagogical  works. — (c)  General  literature. —  II.  Teachers' 
meetings.  —  (a)  faculty  meetings.  —  (b}  teacher's  associations. 
—  III.  Teachers'  institutes.  —  IV.  Pedagogical  courses. 


Vlll  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   IV 

WASTE  IN  EDUCATION 53 

Waste  an  American  characteristic.  —  Cause  of  waste  in  education: 
i.  Waste  in  the  selection  of  material.  —  (a)  What  should  be 
eliminated. —  (b)  What  the  child  should  know. —  2.  Waste  in  the 
employment  of  incompetent  teachers. — 3.  Waste  in  wrong 
methods. — 4.  Waste  the  result  of  poor  physical  conditions. — 
5.  Waste  in  the  limited  use  of  the  school  plant. — The  school 
to  be  a  social  center.  —  6.  Other  causes  of  waste. 


CHAPTER  V 

BACKWARD  AND  DEFECTIVE  CHILDREN 76 

The  problem  of  the  backward  child.  —  Causes  of  backwardness. 

—  Class  A,  Miscellaneous. —  Class  B,  Incorrigibles.  —  Class  C, 
The  mentally  subnormal.  —  State  aid  for  special  classes. — The 
Vineland  summer  school. — The  kind  of  teacher  required  for 
each  class.  —  The  work  of   an  industrial  school.  —  Need  of 
flexible  school  courses. 

CHAPTER  VI 

MAINTENANCE  OF  ORDER 91 

The  necessity  of  order.  —  What  is  good  order?  —  Practical  sugges- 
tions: i.  Make  as  few  rules  as  possible.  —  2.  Keep  control. 

—  3.  Be    positive    and    firm.  —  4.  Punishment — Principles 
concerning.  —  Kinds     of     punishment.  —  i.      Reproof.  —  2. 
Deprivation    of     privileges.  —  3.    Deportment    marks.  —  4. 
Suspension  and  expulsion.  —  5.  Corporal  punishment. 

CHAPTER  VII 

THE  ART  OF  QUESTIONING in 

The  textbook  in  the  recitation.  —  The  Socratic  method.  —  Char- 
acteristics of  good  questions:  i.  The  questions  should  be 
simple.  —  2.  Questions  should  be  sequential.  —  3.  Questions 
should  aim  to  discover  knowledge  possessed.  —  4.  Answers  in 
complete  sentences. —  5.  Questions  should  lead  to  new  knowl- 
edge. —  6.  Questions  should  provoke  thought. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

GENERAL  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 12$ 

Progress  in  methods.  —  i.  The  Oswego  Normal  School.  —  2.  The 
Quincy  Methods.  —  3.  The  Herbartian  Movement.  —  What 


CONTENTS  ix 

is  method? — The  teacher's  personality. — The  essentials  of 
method.  —  Different  methods  of  instruction.  —  i.  Oral  work. 
—  2.  Written  work. —  3.  The  lecture  method.  —  4.  The 
inductive  method.  —  5.  The  deductive  method. 

CHAPTER  IX 

AIMS  AND  METHODS  IN  READING 146 

I.  Aims.  —  II.  Methods.  —  General  suggestions:  i.  Clearness. — 
2.  Naturalness.  —  3.  Accuracy.  —  4.  Selection  of  material. — 
5.  Training  in  thinking. 

CHAPTER  X 

THE  TEACHING  OF  SPELLING 155 

Place  of  spelling  in  the  school.  —  I.  Aims.  —  II.  Methods  and 
devices.  —  i.  Written  and  oral  work.  —  2.  System.  —  3. 
Drill.  —  4.  Rules.  —  5.  Capitals  and  syllabication.  —  6.  Com- 
position. —  7.  The  dictionary.  —  The  spelling-bee. 

CHAPTER  XI 

TRAINING  EN  LANGUAGE 162 

Influence  of  the  environment.  —  I.  Aims.  —  II.  Methods.  — 
Language  lessons.  —  Grammar.  —  Composition. 

CHAPTER  XII 

GEOGRAPHY  TEACHING 169 

Scope  of  the  Subject.  —  I.  Aims  in  teaching  geography  —  II. 
Methods  of  Teaching.  —  (a)  Home  geography.  —  (b)  Excur- 
sions. —  The  elementary  course. 

CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 178 

Importance  of  history  —  I.  Aims  and  Values.  —  H.  Methods  of 
teaching:  i.  In  the  primary  grades.  —  2.  In  the  interme- 
diate grades.  —  The  battlefield  of  Jena.  —  3.  In  the  grammar 
grades. 

CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  TEACHING  OF  ARITHMETIC  190 

Importance  of  the  subject.  —  What  arithmetic  should  include.  — 
I.  Aims  in  teaching  arithmetic.  —  II  Methods  in  teaching 
arithmetic.  —  The  concentric  or  spiral  plan.  —  The  sequence 
of  topics.  —  Oral  and  written  work.  —  Arithmetic  must  bt 
practical.  —  A  course  of  study  in  arithmttic. 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XV 

INSTRUCTION  IN  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE 217 

The  duty  of  the  school  toward  public  health:  i.  Defective  eye- 
sight. —  2.  Defective  hearing.  —  3.  Contagious  diseases.  — 
4.  Food  and  eating.  —  5.  Temperance  instruction.  —  6.  Dan- 
gers of  narcotics. 

CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  IMPORTANCE  or  MANUAL  TRAINING 231 

The  change  in  industrial  conditions.  —  Definition  of  manual  train- 
ing. —  Industrial  vs.  manual  training.  —  I.  The  aim  of  manual 
training.  —  The  place  of  manual  training.  —  II.  Methods  and 
topics  in  manual  training.  —  i.  Basketry,  clay-modeling, 
etc.  —  2.  Drawing  and  design.  —  3.  Wood-working  and 
metal-working.  —  4.  Work  in  brass  and  copper. 

CHAPTER   XVII 

TRAINING  IN  THE  HOUSEHOLD  ARTS 248 

The  increasing  duties  of  the  school.  What  is  domestic  science? 
The  Sixth  Annual  Lake  Placid  Convention.  —  The  scope  of 
home  economy.  —  i.  Foods.  —  2.  Marketing. —  3.  Cooking. 
—  4.  Harmony  of  foods.  —  5.  Sanitation.  —  6.  Disease.  —  7. 
Clothing.  —  8.  The  servant  question.  —  9.  Care  of  children. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

INSTRUCTION  IN  AGRICULTURE : 262 

The  need  for  instruction  in  agriculture.  —  Home  project  plan  of 
Massachusetts.  —  "Part-time"  work.  —  What  lessons  can 
be  taught.  —  i.  Seeds.  —  2.  Soils.  —  3.  Fertilizers.  —  4.  Ro- 
tation of  crops.  —  5.  Insects.  —  6.  The  dairy.  —  7.  Farm  ac- 
counts. —  8.  The  school  garden.  —  9.  Additional  topics. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

EFFICIENCY  IN  EDUCATION 277 

Criticism  of  the  school :  The  more  important  duty  of  the  school.  — 
How  the  school  meets  the  new  demands:  i.  Prevocational 
schools.  —  2.  The  supplementary  or  continuation  schools. — 3. 
Vocational  schools.  —  4.  The  six-and  six  plan.  —  5.  Part-time 
schools. 


CONTENTS  XI 

CHAPTER  XX 

MORAL  INSTRUCTION  m  TUB  SCHOOL *$* 

Importance   of  instruction  in  morals.  —  Religion  and   morals.  — 
Means  of  moral  instruction.  —  i .  The  character  of  the  teacher. 

—  2.  Insistence  on  regularity  of  attendance.  —  3.  Importance 
of  the  physical  side.  —  4.  The  employment  of  the  pupil's  time. 

—  5.  Influence  of  environment.  —  6.  Material  from  fact  and 
fiction.  —  7.  Moral  ideals  in  sports.  —  8.  Moral  basis  of  all 
school   activities.  —  (a)    Cheating.  —  (b)    The    discipline.  — 
9.  What  to  teach. 


Teaching:  Its  Aims  and  Methods 

CHAPTER   I 

WHAT  IS  TEACHING? 

IN  the  early  stages  of  the  history  of  the  human  race 
all  the  instruction  that  children  received  was  imparted 
by  the  parents.  There  were  no  teachers  and  no  schools 
nor  was  there  need  for  either.  Men  lived  in  tents  and 
migrated  from  place  to  place  seeking  pasture  for 
their  flocks  and  safety  for  their  families.  All  that  men 
needed  to  learn  was  how  to  strike  tent,  how  to  care  for 
their  herds,  which  was  their  sole  property,  how  to 
prepare  hides  for  clothing  and  flesh  for  food,  and  how 
to  protect  themselves  from  their  enemies.  Knowledge 
was  limited  and  the  child  could  learn  all  that  he  needed 
to  know  through  association  with  his  father.  As 
civilization  advanced,  as  knowledge  increased,  as  life 
became  more  complex  and  strenuous,  as  society  began 
to  be  formed  and  men  lived  in  closer  contact  with 
one  another,  added  duties  were  thrust  upon  parents 
and  they  could  no  longer  meet  the  new  requirements 
in  the  education  of  their  children.  Hence  teachers 
were  required,  first  in  the  homes  to  aid  the  parents  in 
the  simplest  manner  in  duties  which  they  were  no 
longer  able  to  perform,  and  later  in  schools  set  apart 
for  the  instruction  of  children.  Thus  was  originated 


2  TEACHING:     ITS   AIMS   AND    METHODS 

an  occupation  which  soon  demanded  the  services  of 
men  of  superior  intelligence  and  which  has  grown  into 
a  great  profession.  We  may  say  therefore  that  teach- 
ing has  become  both  a  science  and  an  art. 

I.    TEACHING  is  A  SCIENCE 

The  opinions  of  educators  differ  as  to  whether  there 
is  a  science  of  education.  All  agree  that  there  are 
many  established  principles  governing  educational 
theory  and  that  progress  is  being  made.  But  some 
think  that  we  have  not  yet  reached  the  stage  in  edu- 
cational theory  and  practice  which  entitles  education 
to  be  denominated  a  science.  It  is  recognized  that 
there  was  a  time  in  the  history  of  the  world  when  there 
was  no  science.  No  one  has  created  a  science.  Every 
science  is  a  development  resulting  from  a  discovery  of 
facts  and  principles  which  have  been  correlated  and 
systematized  into  one  general  body,  often  requiring 
centuries  of  research  and  involving  the  activities  of 
many  men. 

Science  Defined.  —  It  may  be  well  clearly  to  under- 
stand what  we  mean  by  science.  Webster  defines 
science  as  "  Accumulated  and  established  knowledge, 
which  has  been  systematized  and  formulated  with 
reference  to  the  discovery  of  general  truths  or  the 
operation  of  general  laws.  Knowledge  classified  and 
made  available  in  work,  life,  or  the  search  for  truth; 
comprehensive,  profound,  or  philosophical  knowledge. " 
Or  in  the  words  of  Sir  William  Hamilton,  "  Science  is 
a  complement  of  cognitions  having  in  point  of  form 
the  character  of  logical  perfection,  and,  in  point  of 


WHAT  IS   TEACHING?  3 

matter,  the  character  of  real  truth."  In  point  of  form, 
it  will  not  be  claimed  that  education  has  reached 
logical  perfection  as  is  the  case  with  mathematics, 
physics,  or  botany,  or  other  exact  sciences.  Like 
psychology,  it  deals  with  mental  activities,  and  like 
medicine  it  has  always  to  suit  itself  to  individual 
characteristics.  Like  these  two  sciences  it  has  a  body 
of  "  Accumulated  and  established  knowledge,  which 
has  been  systematized  with  reference  to  the  discovery 
of  general  truths  or  the  operation  of  general  laws" 
which  can  be  applied  in  teaching  just  as  the  syste- 
matized knowledge  in  medicine  or  psychology  can  be 
applied.  Education  can  never  become  an  exact  science, 
for  the  discovery  and  acceptance  of  a  new  truth  or 
principle  opens  the  door  to  still  other  realms  of  investi- 
gation. The  larger  the  vision,  the  wider  the  horizon, 
and  there  will  never  be  a  time  when  there  will  be  no 
educational  problems  inviting  solution.  He  who  waits 
for  a  complete  solution  of  all  educational  questions 
before  he  accepts  a  science  of  education  will  wait  in 
vain. 

Our  belief  that  there  is  a  science  of  education  is 
based  on  the  following  reasons: 

i.  Because  there  is  sufficient  accumulated  and  estab- 
lished knowledge  on  this  subject. —  From  the  time  of 
Socrates  till  the  present  time,  educational  theories  have 
been  advanced,  some  of  which  have  been  proven  fal- 
lacious while  many  have  become  established  and  are 
universally  accepted.  Of  the  latter,  we  may  mention 
the  duty  of  the  State  to  provide  education  for  all  her 
children  and  the  right  to  levy  public  tax  therefor;  her 
right  to  extend  free  education  beyond  the  elementary 


4  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

school;  her  insistence  on  compulsory  school  attendai 
even  in  spite  of  parental  objection;  the  employment 
duly  licensed  teachers  prepared  at  public  expense;  1 
introduction  and  maintenance  of  the  kindergart 
of  music,  drawing,  manual  training,  domestic  scien 
and  many  other  features  necessary  to  meet  the  con 
tions  of  modern  life.  These  matters  affecting  the  n 
terial  side  of  education  are  settled  for  all  time.  M< 
strictly  scientific  and  pedagogical  questions,  such  as  t 
training  of  the  senses  by  means  of  object  teachi] 
the  doctrine  of  interest,  the  meaning  of  apperceptic 
the  proper  correlation  of  subjects,  the  harmonious  ( 
velopment  of  all  the  human  powers,  the  training  of  t 
hand  and  the  heart,  as  well  as  the  head  —  all  the 
and  many  other  questions,  if  not  fully  settled,  have  h 
light  thrown  upon  them  and  have  reached  practica 
a  final  acceptance  upon  a  scientific  basis. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  formulate  all  the  accept 
educational  principles  that  have  been  evolved.  T 
statement  of  a  few  of  these  principles  will  illustn 
the  point  under  discussion.  Greece  taught  the  eman 
pation  of  the  individual,  an  idea  that  reached  its  gre< 
est  impulse  in  the  teachings  of  Christ,  of  whom  K; 
Schmidt  says,  "  Christ,  the  perfect  teacher,  gave, 
His  example  and  by  His  own  teaching,  the  eten 
principles  of  pedagogy." 

Plato  taught  that  the  aim  of  education  is  to  bring 
the  powers  of  man  into  harmonious  cooperation,  a 
modern  educators  are  emphasizing  this  princip 
Aristotle  believed  that  one  must  proceed  from  t 
concrete  to  the  abstract,  and  Pestalozzi  has  work 
out  this  theory  in  his  scheme  of  object  teachir 


WHAT   IS   TEACHING?  $ 

Quintilian  held  that  children  should  begin  early  with 
a  foreign  tongue  and  all  modern  thinkers  are  adopting 
this  view. 

Francke  not  only  urged  that  teachers  should  be 
trained  but  also  carried  out  his  ideas  practically. 
The  establishment  of  many  normal  schools,  training 
classes,  teachers'  colleges,  and  other  institutions  for 
the  preparation  of  teachers,  the  vast  sums  of  money 
freely  contributed  by  the  public  for  this  purpose  and 
the  growing  disposition  of  school  boards  to  employ 
only  professionally  trained  teachers,  prove  that  this 
idea  has  won  acceptance. 

Charlemagne  thought  that  every  child  has  a  right 
to  an  education  and  Pestalozzi  emphasized  the  same 
thought.  Of  him  Dr.  Harris  says,  "He  is  the  first 
teacher  to  announce  convincingly  the  doctrine  that 
all  people  should  be  educated,  that,  in  fact,  education 
is  the  one  good  gift  to  give  to  all  whether  rich  or 
poor."  Every  civilized  nation  is  now  providing  the 
opportunity  for  every  child  to  secure  that  inherent  right. 

The  above  statements  illustrate  that  there  is  "accu- 
mulated and  established  knowledge"  on  this  subject, 
and  we  believe  that  it  is  sufficient  to  entitle  education 
to  the  dignity  of  a  science.  Prof.  Rein  says,  "Froebel 
gave  the  world  the  kindergarten,  while  Herbart  ele- 
vated education  to  the  dignity  of  a  science.1 

2.  Because  of  the  scientific  works  on  education. —  If 
the  foregoing  argument  does  not  suffice,  a  second  one 
is  found  in  the  vast  number  of  scientific  and  philosoph- 

1  For  the  statement  of  many  more  educational  maxims,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  summaries  following  each  chapter  in  my  "History  of 
Education." 


6  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

ical  works  on  education.  It  is  hardly  conceivable  that 
profound  thinkers  should  devote  their  best  thought  to 
a  discussion  of  something  that  does  not  exist.  These 
discussions  are  found  not  only  in  educational  books  and 
periodicals,  but  also  in  popular  magazines  and  current 
literature.  Every  year  there  are  issued  in  English 
alone  hundreds  of  books,  pamphlets  and  other  writing 
which  treat  seriously  various  fields  of  educational 
activity,  while  productions  on  this  subject  in  German 
and  French  are  still  more  voluminous.  James  M. 
Greenwood  well  remarks,  "With  a  pedagogical  litera- 
ture that  represents  hundreds  of  volumes  in  English, 
more  than  two  thousand  in  French,  and  more  volumi- 
nous still  in  German,  there  is  hardly  a  valid  excuse  why 
anyone  who  is  to  teach  in  a  public  or  private  school 
should  be  ignorant  of  the  existence  of  this  great  treasure 
house  of  educational  knowledge." 

3.  Because  of  organizations  for  the  study  of  educa- 
tion.—  Teachers'  organizations,  which  meet  periodically 
to  discuss  educational  questions,  from  national  and 
state  associations  down  to  the  smallest  teachers'  club, 
furnish  evidence  that  there  is  a  science  of  education. 
It  is  true  that  there  are  other  societies  like  labor 
unions  and  mutual  benefit  associations,  which  meet 
to  discuss  matters  affecting  their  interests.  But  there 
is  this  vital  difference  between  these  organizations  and 
those  maintained  by  teachers,  namely,  their  purpose 
is  to  secure  better  pay,  shorter  hours,  recognition  of 
the  union  or  to  provide  for  the  sick,  the  aged,  or  the 
incapacitated,  while  the  latter  associations  discuss 
questions  affecting  the  welfare  of  the  human  race  by 
means  of  the  work  done  in  the  schools.  Methods  of 


WHAT   IS   TEACHING?  7 

instruction,  suitable  courses  of  study,  wholesome  dis- 
cipline, educational  theories,  whatever  will  interest 
and  uplift  the  pupils,  how  to  prepare  them  to  be  most 
useful  in  life,  these,  and  like  questions  furnish  the  chief 
topics  of  the  programs.  Rare,  indeed,  does  one  find 
in  such  meetings  discussions  of  salaries,  of  shorter 
hours,  of  advancement  or  other  questions  affecting 
the  selfish  interests  of  the  teachers.  This  work  is  as 
purely  altruistic  as  that  of  medical,  legal,  or  theological 
associations,  and  therefore  like  these,  teaching  may 
justly  be  classed  as  a  profession,  based  upon  scientific 
principles. 

4.  Because  of  the  institutions  maintained  for  the  scien- 
tific  study   of  education. —  There   are,   in   this   country 
alone,  nearly  400  normal  schools  devoting  their  whole 
time    to    educating    teachers,    1200    high    schools    with 
teachers'   training   classes,   and   about   140   universities 
and  colleges  offering  pedagogical  courses.     In  addition 
to    these    there    are    many    summer    schools,    training 
classes,  and  institutes  held  for  the  purpose  of  preparing 
teachers.     The   maintenance    of   these   institutions   in- 
volves  a   large    outlay   of   money,    and   whether   that 
money  is  contributed  by  individual  givers  or  is  appro- 
priated from  public  funds  by  legislative  representatives, 
the  fact  that  it  is  so  freely  given  is  a  proof  that  the 
cause  is  worthy.     It  is  corroborative  proof  that  men 
believe  that  there  is  a  science  of  education  and  they 
are  willing  to  contribute  for  the  spread  of  that  science 
just  as  they  are  willing  to  support  chairs  for  the  teach- 
ing   of    physics,     chemistry,     mathematics,    or    other 
sciences. 

5.  Because  education  has  long  been  recognized  as  a 


8  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

science. —  It  is  true  that  the  recognition  of  education 
as  a  science  has  been  tardy  in  this  country,  the  oldest 
normal  school  having  been  founded  only  three-quarters 
of  a  century  ago,  and  the  recognition  by  higher  insti- 
tutions of  learning  having  taken  place  only  within  a 
generation.  In  other  countries,  however,  notably 
Germany  and  France,  education  has  long  been  regarded 
as  a  science,  courses  have  been  offered,  and  degrees 
given  on  an  equality  with  other  sciences. 

As  teaching  is  a  science  it  is  worthy  of  respect  and 
consideration  the  same  as  other  sciences.  It  is  in  the 
way  of  progress  and  improvement  in  its  own  field  of 
activity.  On  the  part  of  teachers,  it  calls  for  altruism, 
for  scientific  investigation  and  enterprise.  It  is  un- 
selfish. It  places  teaching  in  the  ranks  of  professions 
father  than  trades.  It  offers  substantial  hope  for  the 
future  of  the  human  race,  for  teaching  is  the  greatest 
agency  of  progress  and  of  the  advancement  of  mankind. 

II.     TEACHING  is  AN  ART 

Not  only  is  teaching  a  science,  it  is  also  an  art. 
We  shall  come  closer  to  the  answer  of  the  question, 
"What  is  Teaching?"  in  the  consideration  of  teaching 
as  an  art.  Let  us  study  the  method  of  Jesus,  The 
Great  Teacher. 

Christ's  Method.-  "And  seeing  the  multitudes,  he 
went  up  into  a  mountain;  and  when  he  was  set,  his 
disciples  came  unto  him;  and  he  opened  his  mouth  and 
taught  them,  saying,  Blessed  are  the  poor  in  spirit,  for 
theirs  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven."  Thus  began  the 
most  remarkable  hour  of  instruction  ever  listened  to 


WHAT   IS    TEACHING?  9 

by  human  ears,  Christ's  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  What 
better  introduction  to  a  study  of  "The  Art  of  Teach- 
ing/' than  a  consideration  of  the  method  of  the  Great 
Teacher?  First  of  all,  His  life  and  purity  of  character 
place  Him  above  reproach,  and  His  is  an  example  of 
goodness  and  unselfish  devotion  for  teachers  of  all  ages. 
He  was  "without  spot  or  blemish. "  The  most  careful 
study  of  His  life  by  critics,  by  enemies  and  friends,  by 
philosophers  and  students,  by  believers  and  unbelievers, 
by  wise  and  simple  during  the  past  nineteen  centuries 
has  only  sustained  and  confirmed  the  conviction  that 
He  is  the  greatest  of  all  teachers.  Not  only  the  great 
and  wise  have  been  blessed  by  His  sublime  words,  but 
also  the  simple  and  unlettered  have  understood  Him 
and  been  comforted  and  uplifted. 

What  are  the  characteristics  of  Christ's  method? 
In  answering  this  question  we  shall  find  an  answer  to 
the  problem  with  which  we  are  dealing.  These  are 
some  of  the  characteristics  of  His  teaching: 

i.  //  was  suited  to  His  hearers. —  When  He  talked 
with  Nicodemus,  He  discussed  the  profoundest  doc- 
trines of  the  new  birth;  but  when  He  met  the  ignorant 
Samaritan  woman  at  Jacob's  well,  He  opened  up  the 
truth  in  the  simplest  and  yet  most  searching  manner. 
Among  the  vineclad  hills  of  Judea,  surrounded  by  wine- 
growers, He  spoke  the  parable  of  the  vineyard.  In 
the  midst  of  the  farmers  and  tillers  of  soil,  He  began, 
"Behold  a  sower  went  forth  to  sow,"  or  "'The  King- 
dom of  heaven  is  like  to  a  grain  of  mustard  seed."  No 
one  failed  to  understand  His  meaning  and  He  is  a  most 
remarkable  example  of  a  teacher  suiting  his  instruction 
to  the  comprehension  and  needs  of  His  hearers. 


io  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

2.  It   abounded  in   concrete  illustrations. —  Thus   the 
evil  of  covetousness  is  shown  by  the  parable  of  the 
rich  man  and  his  barns.     Charity  and  forbearance  are 
illustrated  by  the  parable  of  the  creditor  and  his  two 
debtors.     Mercy    and    generosity    are    taught    in    the 
story    of    the    Good    Samaritan.     Forgiveness,    in    the 
wonderful  parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son.     Prudence,  in 
the  parable  of  the  man  building  a  tower,  or  the  King 
going  to  war.     Solicitude  for  the  lost,  in  the  story  of 
the  Ninety  and  Nine.     Future  rewards,  in  the  account 
of  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus.     Justice  in  the  parable 
of  the  Unjust  Steward.     All  through  His  ministry  he 
utilized  the  circumstances  and  the  common  events  of 
the  life  around  Him  to  illustrate  and  emphasize  the 
lessons  he  wished  to  teach. 

Following  this  example  the  teacher  of  young  children 
must  make  abundant  use  of  concrete  illustrations  and 
there  is  no  material  more  suggestive  than  that  found 
in  the  words  and  works  of  Christ.  Pestalozzi  caught 
the  spirit  of  the  Master  and  gave  to  the  world  the  idea 
of  object  teaching,  the  use  of  concrete  material.  In 
this,  as  well  as  in  the  motive  and  zeal  which  actuated 
his  whole  life,  the  Swiss  reformer  followed  in  the  foot- 
steps of  Him  who  taught  as  no  one  else  ever  taught 
and  concerning  whom  the  Roman  officers  said,  "  Never 
man  spake  like  this  man." 

3.  //  drew  from  nature  and  from  environment. —  We 
hear  a  great  deal  in  these  days  of  "  Nature  Study," 
of   the  use  of  environment,   of  making  the  child  ac- 
quainted with  the  actual  things  of  life.     We  turn  to 
Rousseau    for    a    remarkable    exposition   in   his   Emile 
of   nature's   way   of   doing.     Far   richer   and   truer   to 


WHAT   IS    TEACHING?  II 

nature  is  the  example  and  practice  of  Jesus.  He  loved 
to  wander  among  the  hills  of  Galilee  and  over  the 
plains  of  Judea  followed  by  His  disciples,  seizing  upon 
the  changing  scenes  to  draw  lessons  of  deepest  spiritual 
import.  The  Mystery  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  is 
illustrated  by  the  parable  of  the  grain  of  Mustard 
Seed.  What  better  method  of  inspiring  confidence  in 
God's  providence  than  this  appeal  to  nature?  "  Behold 
the  fowls  of  the  air!  for  they  sow  not,  neither  do  they 
reap,  nor  gather  into  barns;  and  yet  your  heavenly 
Father  feedeth  them.  Are  ye  not  much  better  than 
they?"  "Why  take  ye  thought  for  raiment?  Con- 
sider the  lilies  of  the  field,  how  they  grow;  they  toil 
not,  neither  do  they  spin;  and  yet  I  say  unto  you, 
that  even  Solomon  in  all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed 
like  one  of  these. "  What  stronger  illustration  of  genu- 
ineness is  to  be  found  than  in  the  parable  of  the  good 
and  the  corrupt  tree?  "For  a  good  tree  bringeth 
forth  not  evil  fruit;  neither  doth  a  corrupt  tree  bring 
forth  good  fruit.  For  every  tree  is  known  by  his  own 
fruit.  For  of  thorns  men  do  not  gather  figs,  nor  of  a 
bramble  bush  gather  they  grapes.  A  good  man  out  of 
the  good  treasure  of  his  heart  bringeth  forth  that 
which  is  good;  and  an  evil  man  out  of  the  evil  treasure 
of  his  heart  bringeth  forth  that  which  is  evil;  for  out 
of  the  abundance  of  the  heart  his  mouth  speaketh." 
What  a  remarkable  appeal  to  the  shepherds  and 
husbandmen  is  His  parable  of  the  lost  sheep  and  how 
fully  it  must  have  reached  their  comprehension. 
"What  man  of  you,  having  a  hundred  sheep,  if  he 
lose  one  of  them,  doth  not  leave  the  ninety  and  nine 
in  the  wilderness  and  go  after  that  which  is  lost,  until 


12  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

he  find  it?  And  when  he  hath  found  it,  he  layeth  it 
on  his  shoulders,  rejoicing,  and  when  he  cometh  home, 
he  calleth  together  his  friends  and  neighbours,  saying 
unto  them,  Rejoice  with  me;  for  I  have  found  my  sheep 
which  was  lost.  I  say  unto  you,  that  likewise  joy 
shall  be  in  heaven  over  one  sinner  that  repenteth, 
more  than  over  ninety  and  nine  just  persons,  which 
need  no  repentance."  Christ  never  failed  to  employ 
nature  to  illustrate  his  sublime  truths,  thus  emphasiz- 
ing and  fastening  the  lessons  upon  His  hearers.  No 
teacher  can  afford  to  ignore  the  New  Testament  in 
his  study  of  educational  method. 

4.  It  was  simple  and  yet  logical. —  The  language  that 
Jesus  used  was  so  simple  that  the  ignorant  and  lowly 
could  follow  His  teaching,  and  even  little  children 
were  drawn  to  Him  by  the  simplicity  and  fitness  of 
His  words.  Whether  it  was  a  parable  or  a  story,  a 
warning  or  a  reprimand,  a  tender  appeal  or  an  indig- 
nant reproof,  a  sermon  or  a  prayer,  an  argument  with 
the  Scribes  and  the  Pharisees,  a  comforting  word  to  the 
sisters  of  Bethany,  or  a  familiar  talk  with  His  disciples, 
Jesus  expressed  Himself  with  clearness  and  simplicity 
so  that  all  understood  His  gracious  words  and  grasped 
His  meaning;  and  yet,  there  was  a  logic  and  complete- 
ness in  His  utterances  that  impressed  even  the  wise  and 
learned.  We  read  that  when  His  parents  found  Him 
in  the  temple  at  twelve  years  of  age,  sitting  in  the 
midst  of  the  doctors,  both  hearing  them  and  asking 
them  questions,  it  was  declared,  that  "  All  who  heard  him 
were  astonished  at  his  understanding  and  answers." 
We  thus  find  a  remarkable  illustration  of  the  necessity 
of  simple  and  yet  logical  presentation  of  matter. 


WHAT  IS   TEACHING?  13 

5.  It  exalted  the  truth. —  Christ  was  the  essence  of 
truth,   declaring  unto   Thomas,   "I   am   the   way,   the 
truth,  and  the  life."     By  His  exaltation  of  truth  and 
by  His  interpretation  of  it,  Jesus  has  transformed  the 
world,  elevated  mankind,  fostered  peace  and  brotherly 
love,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  human  progress  for 
all  time.     So,  too,  upon  the  teacher  of  today  is  laid 
the  duty  of  promulgating  truth,  for  the  teacher  is  the 
"high  priest  of  the  future/'  and  as  he  thinks,  as  he 
teaches,  as  he  molds,  as  he  leads,  so  will  the  future 
men  and  women  think,  and  act,  and  live. 

6.  //  was  authoritative. —  "And  they  were  astonished 
at  his  doctrine;  for  He  taught  them  as  one   that  had 
authority,  and  not  as  the  Scribes. "     There  was  no  un- 
certainty in  the  mind  of  Christ  in  anything  that  He 
taught.    He  was  always  master  of  His  theme  and  there- 
fore was  able  to  overthrow  the  lawyers,  and  Scribes, 
and  Sadducees  who  sought  to  entrap  Him  by  covert 
questions    and    sophistical    reasoning.     On    the    other 
hand,  we  have  seen  that  He  presented  the  truths  so 
simply  that  the  unlettered  could  comprehend.     There 
can   be   no   good   teaching   unless   the   teacher   has   so 
thoroughly  mastered  his  subject  as  to  be  able  to  speak 
with  confidence  and  authority.     Men  go  to  the  ends 
of  the  earth  to  sit  at  the  feet  of  a  teacher  who  has  won 
the  right  to  be  called  an  authority  in  some  particular 
field. 

7.  It  was  sympathetic. —  Christ  came  very  close  to 
those   who   followed   Him   as   "He   went   about   doing 
good."     He   loved   little   children   and   drew   them    to 
Him.     He  held   Himself  aloof  from  no   one.     He  ate 
with   publicans   and   sinners,    tarried   at   the   home   of 


14  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

Zacchaeus  the  rich  usurer,  and  gave  new  life  and  hope 
to  the  abandoned  Magdalene.  His  was  the  purest 
altruism  for  He  gave  Himself  for  others,  always  seek- 
ing to  bless  and  save  the  lost  and  the  hopeless.  What 
an  example  for  those  who  would  consecrate  their  lives 
to  the  great  work  of  teaching! 

I  have  thus  sought  to  present  reverently  and  with 
a  full  sense  of  the  greatness  of  the  task,  some  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  method  and  to  awaken  something 
of  the  spirit  of  the  Great  Teacher  as  the  best  intro- 
duction to  a  study  of  the  question  at  the  head  of  this 
chapter,  "What  is  Teaching?'7  Let  those  who  wish 
to  perfect  themselves  in  the  art  of  teaching  not  fail 
to  study  the  life  and  work  of  Christ.  May  they  catch 
the  spirit  that  actuated  Him.  There  is  no  better 
preparation  for  this  noble  work. 

III.   DEFINITION  OF  TEACHING 

Teaching  may  be  defined  as  the  process  of  canceling 
the  difference  in  knowledge  between  two  persons. — Let  us 

turn  to  a  more  specific  study  of  this  definition.  Some 
time  ago  while  riding  on  a  train  I  sat  with  a  man  who 
had  in  his  possession  a  beautiful  cane  made  of  glass. 
He  was  a  glass  blower  and  had  made  the  cane  himself. 
He  described  the  process  by  which  he  made  the  cane; 
in  a  word,  he  was  my  teacher.  In  so  far  as  I  grasped 
his  meaning,  the  original  difference  between  us  on  this 
subject  was  canceled.  Of  course,  it  would  have  been 
necessary  for  him  to  take  me  to  a  glass  factory,  put 
tools  into  my  hands  and  train  me  in  their  use,  show 
me  the  various  processes  and  help  me  to  acquire  skill 


WHAT   IS    TEACHING?  15 

in  manipulating  them,  instruct  me  in  the  intricacies 
of  glass-making  in  order  wholly  to  cancel  the  difference 
between  us  so  that  I  could  make  as  fine  a  cane  as  he 
could. 

i.  Knowledge  the  first  essential. —  The  teacher  stands 
before  his  class  possessing  knowledge  that  the  pupils 
do  not  possess.  His  work  is  to  obliterate  as  much  of 
the  difference  as  possible,  and  this  act  is  teaching.  It 
is  evident,  then,  that  the  first  essential  in  the  teacher's 
equipment  is  knowledge.  The  school  trustee  who  hires 
his  neighbor's  daughter  who  has  only  a  grammar  school 
training  on  the  ground  that  "She  knows  enough  to 
teach  those  little  children  in  the  district  school/'  fails 
to  understand  a  vital  truth,  namely,  that  one  who  has 
but  little  to  give  can  give  but  little,  and  therefore  the 
children  in  such  case  have  but  little  to  expect.  There  is 
not  much  difference  to  cancel. 

Recognizing  the  fundamental  necessity  of  knowledge 
in  the  equipment  of  the  teacher,  normal  schools  are 
insisting  upon  the  full  preparation  of  the  high  school 
as  a  condition  of  admission  and  as  a  prerequisite  to 
professional  training.  Examining  boards  everywhere 
are  strengthening  the  academic  requirements  of  candi- 
dates for  license  to  teach.  There  must  be  mastery 
of  subject  matter,  there  must  be  broad  culture  and  a 
sound  basis  of  learning  if  one  is  to  secure  abiding  and 
substantial  success  as  a  teacher.  Skill  in  the  manipu- 
lation of  classes,  genius  in  the  technique  of  teaching, 
mastery  in  the  art  of  interesting  pupils,  facility  in 
the  adaptation  of  methods  are  all  very  essential  in 
teaching,  but  they  can  never  be  substitutes  for  knowl- 
edge. Let  me  illustrate  this  point  by  a  concrete 


1 6  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

example.  As  principal  of  a  school  I  obtained  gradu- 
ates from  two  normal  schools,  one  of  which  laid  great 
stress  upon  methods,  and  the  other  laid  stress  upon 
knowledge  as  the  foundation  of  the  teacher's  equip- 
ment. The  former  school  held  that  the  most  im- 
portant thing  is  to  make  the  teacher  familiar  with  the 
school  room  arts;  the  latter  held  that  if  you  give  her 
a  sound  foundation  in  knowledge  and  in  the  science  of 
teaching,  the  art  side  would  soon  take  care  of  itself. 
The  first  teacher  took  hold  of  her  work  like  a  veteran. 
She  knew  how  to  perform  her  duties  and  had  her 
pupils  well  in  hand.  The  other  teacher  began  with 
indifferent  success,  so  much  so,  that  the  board  of  edu- 
cation feared  that  we  had  made  a  mistake.  But  it 
was  not  long  before  she  found  herself  and  every  year 
added  to  her  strength  and  growth.  The  former  teacher 
showed  no  progress,  she  was  as  good  a  teacher  the  first 
year  as  she  ever  was.  The  one  teacher's  equipment 
was  based  upon  immediate  and  superficial  results; 
the  other  upon  lasting  foundations,  those  of  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  subjects  to  be  taught.  Said  the 
principal  of  a  public  school  to  me:  "The  teachers  that 
come  to  me  from  the  training  school  always  start 
better  than  those  from  the  normal  school  because  they 
are  familiar  with  our  system  and  have  had  more  prac- 
tice work;  but  those  from  the  normal  school  soon 
find  themselves,  and  always  turn  out  to  be  my  best 
teachers." 

It  is  not  noble  buildings,  or  great  libraries,  or  fine 
surroundings,  or  the  large  student  body  that  make  a 
university  great;  but  it  is  the  men  of  large  learning,  the 
men  who  have  sounded  the  depths  of  knowledge,  the 


WHAT   IS   TEACHING?  17 

men  who  have  something  to  give  that  make  the  uni- 
versity. It  is  these  teachers  that  draw  students  to  an 
institution.  They  possess  knowledge  that  others  want 
to  acquire  and  students  will  make  great  sacrifices  in 
order  to  come  under  the  spell  of  those  who  possess  it. 
There  is  nothing  in  the  teacher's  preparation  that  can 
compensate  for  the  lack  of  knowledge.  The  commission 
of  experts  authorized  by  the  legislature  of  Vermont  to 
investigate  the  school  system  of  that  state,  very  wisely 
says  that  in  teachers,  "  Knowledge  of  the  subject- 
matter  must  have  become  so  comprehensive  and 
automatic  that  the  conscious  purpose  to  instruct 
may  always  be  uppermost  and  unembarrassed." 

2.  Power  to  impart  an  essential. —  While  the  first 
essential  is  knowledge  of  subject  matter,  it  is  recognized 
that  there  must  be  power  to  impart  knowledge. 
Hence  the  necessity  of  professional  schools  to  teach 
the  science  and  art  of  teaching.  There  is  little  more 
reason  for  a  young  man  who  has  completed  the  ordi- 
nary academic  course  in  college  to  begin  teaching 
without  special  preparation  than  there  is  for  him  to 
begin  the  practice  of  medicine  without  special  prepara- 
tion. For  this  reason  most  of  our  colleges  offer 
pedagogical  courses  for  students  who  expect  to  teach. 
This  certainly  is  wise,  for  between  twenty-five  and 
thirty  per  cent  of  those  who  graduate  from  college 
enter  teaching  —  a  larger  percentage  than  any  other 
profession  secures.  The  analogy  between  teaching 
and  medicine  is  not  wholly  fair,  because  in  the  former 
one  may  employ  knowledge  and  methods  in  the  same 
way  they  have  been  employed  in  his  education,  while 
in  the  latter  the  field  is  entirely  new.  But  the  teacher 


i8  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

with  no  pedagogical  preparation  must  learn  to  teach 
at  the  expense  of  his  pupils,  and  this  is  a  very  expen- 
sive way  to  learn  —  expensive  for  the  pupils  and  for 
the  community.  Therefore  boards  of  education  are 
expecting  more  and  more  that  a  college  graduate  shall 
supplement  his  academic  course  with  a  professional 
course  in  teaching  before  he  seeks  employment.  To 
meet  this  demand  there  have  grown  up  teachers' 
colleges  and  special  courses  in  normal  schools  and 
summer  schools,  and  these  institutions  are  rapidly 
increasing  as  the  requirement  becomes  more  imperative. 

3.  Natural  qualifications  for  teaching.  —  In  the  olden 
time  stress  was  laid  upon  the  teacher  being  possessed  of 
natural  ability  in  managing  children  and  in  imparting 
knowledge.  Most  persons  who  went  through  the 
earlier  schools  can  recall  such  a  teacher  whom  they 
remember  with  gratitude  and  affection.  Less  stress 
is  now  laid  upon  this  idea  than  in  former  times, 
because  it  is  recognized  that  through  a  study  of  the 
psychology  of  teaching,  through  an  understanding  of 
fundamental  principles,  and  through  practice  in  the 
art  of  teaching  one  can  acquire  power  in  this  field, 
as  power  in  the  field  of  medicine,  law,  or  theology  can 
be  acquired;  and  there  are  the  same  reasons  for  special 
preparation  in  teaching  as  there  are  for  special  prepa- 
ration in  the  other  professions.  Although  the  "born" 
teacher  was  often  a  person  whose  chief  gift  was  the 
ability  to  keep  order  —  always  a  primary  essential, 
but  doubly  so  in  the  old  time  school  —  yet  some  of 
them  possessed  extraordinary  skill  in  imparting  knowl- 
edge. 

Whether  it  is  natural  or  acquired,  the  teacher  must 


WHAT   IS   TEACHING?  1 9 

possess  the  power  to  impart  knowledge,  must  know 
how  to  cancel  the  difference  in  knowledge  between 
himself  and  his  pupils.  How  shall  this  difference  be 
canceled?  How  shall  teacher  and  pupil  be  brought 
together?  The  answer  is  —  by  teaching.  It  is  obvious 
that  the  first  essential  in  this  process  is  to  make  the 
child  eager  to  know.  No  successful  teaching  can  take 
place  without  this.  The  material  selected  and  the 
method  of  presentation  must  be  suited  to  the  capacity 
of  the  child.  Interest  cannot  be  sustained  unless  these 
conditions  obtain.  Ingenious  technique  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher  wTill  not  suffice.  Hence,  in  the  real  sense, 
method  embraces  not  only  the  act  of  imparting  but 
also  the  content  —  suitable  material. 

4.  Manner  of  imparting. —  If  John  Locke's  teaching, 
that  the  mind  is  a  tabula  rasa,  a  " blank  tablet,"  on 
which  impressions  are  to  be  made  as  on  the  film  of  a 
camera  is   true,   the  principal  work  of  teaching  is  to 
impart;    and  the  more  one  can  throw  on  the  " blank 
tablet,"   the   greater   the   amount  of  instruction;    but 
this  theory  has  long  been  an  exploded  one.     The  mind 
is  self-active  and  the  great  work  of  the  teacher  is  to 
arouse    self-activity    in    the    child,    a    principle    upon 
which  Froebel  lays  great  stress.     The  teacher  may  be 
ever   so   efficient   in  imparting  knowledge,   but  if   the 
pupil  does  not  respond,  if  he  is  not  stimulated  to  think 
and  act  for  himself,  there  is  no  real  teaching.     There 
must  be  mutual  and  sympathetic  action  between  the 
two  or  there  will  be  no  cancelation  of  the  difference  in 
knowledge. 

5.  The  German  method. —  The  method  of  instruction 
in  the  German  Volksschule  is  that  of  imparting.     The 


20  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

teacher  relates  the  historical  event,  or  the  lesson  in 
geography,  or  whatever  is  to  be  taught,  and  then 
questions  the  pupils  concerning  the  facts  given.  He 
does  this  with  that  wonderful  skill  and  forcefulness 
which  has  made  the  German  schoolmaster  famous. 
No  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  is  required  - 
in  many  subjects  they  are  not  provided  with  text-books. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  the  total  cost  of  text-books 
for  the  eight  years'  course  is  not  more  than  one  dollar. 
Home  work  consists  in  performing  tasks  that  follow 
the  instruction  rather  than  in  doing  work  that  precedes 
it  as  is  our  American  custom.  The  German  pupil 
learns  through  the  instruction,  and  his  self-activity  is 
certainly  aroused.  President  Butler  thinks  that  the 
German  child  of  fourteen  is  at  least  two  years  in 
advance  of  the  American  child  of  the  same  age  in  the 
matter  of  knowledge.  But  has  he  also  the  self-reliance, 
the  power  of  initiative,  the  desire  for  further  progress 
in  learning  that  the  American  child  has?  Does  not 
the  method  of  instruction,  the  imparting  method  in 
which  his  teacher  is  almost  his  sole  means  of  gaining 
knowledge,  tend  to  destroy  his  power  of  initiative  and 
his  self-reliance  and  fail  to  provide  him  with  the  power 
of  progressing  and  the  desire  to  do  so  after  leaving 
school?  Many  thoughtful  German  educators  believe 
that  their  schools  are  defective  in  these  very  important 
respects  and  the  authorities  are  establishing  many 
supplementary  schools  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging 
further  study  after  the  child  leaves  the  common  school. 
It  seems  to  me  that  teaching,  in  the  best  sense,  stimu- 
lates the  above  qualities,  namely,  the  power  of  ini- 
tiative, self-reliance,  and  the  desire  for  further' progress, 


WHAT   IS   TEACHING?  21 

and  that  these  qualities  should  be  inculcated  even  in 
the  elementary  school  which  furnishes  all  the  schooling 
that  ninety  per  cent  of  the  children  ever  get. 

I  shall  discuss  methods  of  teaching  in  a  later  chapter 
in  which  the  details  will  be  more  fully  treated.  In 
conclusion,  the  teacher  must  first  of  all  possess  knowl- 
edge; and  secondly,  he  must  have  the  power  to  im- 
part it.  His  teaching  is  a  success  when,  in  part  at  least, 
he  has  canceled  the  difference  in  knowledge  that  ex- 
isted between  him  and  his  pupils,  and  when  through 
the  stimulation  of  their  self-activity  he  has  succeeded 
in  creating  a  desire  for  further  progress  in  learning, 
and  has  taught  them  how  to  secure  it.  In  reaching 
these  results,  doubtless  his  own  personality,  his  skill 
in  the  art  of  teaching,  his  power  of  awakening  enthu- 
siasm, and  his  genius  in  interesting  the  child's  capacities 
and  needs  will  play  an  important  part. 


CHAPTER  II 

MOTIVES  FOR  BECOMING  A  TEACHER 

The  Need  of  Teachers.  —  Every  year  from  80,000  to 
100,000  young  people  in  this  country  enter  upon  the 
work  of  teaching.  They  come  from  the  farm  and 
the  city,  from  the  college  and  the  normal  school,  but 
the  great  body  of  them  still  come  from  the  elementary 
school  where  their  training  has  necessarily  been  very 
limited  with  little  reference  to  any  professional  calling. 
It  is  an  encouraging  sign,  however,  that  college  gradu- 
ates are  entering  more  and  more  upon  this  work. 
Formerly  the  largest  percentage  of  college  graduates 
entered  the  ministry  or  the  law,  but  now  teaching  is 
drawing  a  larger  percentage  from  the  colleges  than  any 
other  profession  is  drawing  —  the  latest  statistics  showing 
that  more  than  a  quarter  of  those  who  go  to  college  be- 
come teachers.  The  normal  schools,  public  and  private, 
furnish  some  eighteen  thousand  graduates,  while  the 
normal  departments  of  universities,  colleges,  and  high 
schools  contribute  about  four  thousand  more,  making 
approximately  one-fourth  of  the  nearly  one  hundred 
thousand  teachers  needed  every  year. 

Commissioner  Claxton  says,  "The  total  number  of 
graduates  (from  normal  schools),  18,278,  was  large 
enough  to  supply  less  than  25  per  cent  of  the  demand 
for  new  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools  of  the  coun- 
try. If  all  the  graduates  had  begun  teaching  in  the  fall 


MOTIVES   FOR   BECOMING  A   TEACHER  23 

after  their  graduation,  there  would  still  have  been  60,000 
vacancies  or  more  to  be  filled  by  young  teachers  who 
had  not  had  the  education  and  professional  training 
represented  by  graduation  from  the  normal  school. 
This  lack  of  preparation  of  teachers  is  one  of  the  great- 
est evils  of  our  school  system.  In  no  other  country 
that  pretends  to  provide  an  opportunity  for  universal 
education  is  the  condition  in  this  respect  so  bad  as 
in  the  United  States.  This  condition  must  be  remedied 
or  the  schools  must  continue  to  be  much  less  efficient 
than  they  should  be.  The  state  or  country  which 
assumes  the  responsibility  of  educating  children  at 
public  expense  and  in  schools  under  public  control, 
must  assume  the  corresponding  responsibility  of  pre- 
paring at  public  expense  a  sufficient  number  of  teach- 
ers, and  must  refuse  to  license  persons  not  having 
sufficient  native  ability,  education,  and  training  to 
use  to  good  advantage  the  time  and  money  of  the 
children.  It  is  unwise  and  unjust  to  give  in  one  school 
supported  by  the  taxes  of  the  people  and  attended  by 
children  that  may  be  prepared  for  life,  for  making  a 
living,  and  for  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  citizen- 
ship, a  well-educated  and  well-trained  teacher,  and  to 
give  at  the  same  time  to  another  school  supported  by 
the  taxes  of  the  people  and  attended  by  children  that 
may  be  prepared  for  the  duties  and  responsibilities 
of  citizenship,  a  teacher  without  education,  training, 
or  experience:  "x 

The    Untrained   Teacher. —  The   problem   of   the   un- 
trained teacher  is  the  most  stupendous  problem  that 
confronts  American  education  today.     It  is  chiefly  to 
1  United  States  Commissioner's  Report  for  1912,  p.  xviii. 


24  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

reach,  inspire,  guide,  and  aid  the  great  body  of  young 
people  who  belong  to  this  class,  and  who  most  of  all 
need  help,  that  this  book  is  written.  Entering  upon 
the  work  with  high  ambition  and  lofty  ideals,  never- 
theless, without  professional  training  and  experience, 
they  grope  their  way  in  ignorance  of  many  things  that 
they  might  learn  and  make  mistakes  that  they  might 
easily  escape.  All  this  is  done  at  the  expense  of  the 
children.  Whoever  helps  the  teacher,  becomes  a  bene- 
factor of  the  more  than  twenty  million  children 
thronging  the  public  schools  of  America.  And  this 
brings  me  to  the  topic  which  this  chapter  starts  out  to 
discuss. 

Motives.  —  Of  all  those  who  contemplate  entering 
upon  teaching,  whether  it  be  those  who  have  spent  time 
and  money  in  obtaining  a  suitable  preparation,  or  those 
who  have  had  no  preparation,  I  want  to  ask  the 
question,  "What  are  your  motives? "  No  one  should 
undertake  this  great  work  without  carefully  considering 
its  importance,  its  opportunities,  and  its  responsibilities; 
for  to  be  a  teacher  of  the  young  is  one  of  the  greatest 
privileges  and  opportunities  that  a  human  being  can 
enjoy.  There  is  no  nobler  calling  among  the  occupa- 
tions of  men.  It  opens  to  the  young  man  or  woman  of 
ability,  ambition,  and  zeal  such  a  field  for  good  as  no 
other  calling  offers.  Even  the  minister  of  God's  Word 
does  not  have  the  opportunities  for  doing  good  that 
the  school  teacher  does,  for  the  latter  deals  with  im- 
pressionable and  plastic  minds  and  hearts  which  are 
committed  to  his  care  by  personal  contact  for  several 
hours  a  day  and  possibly  for  a  number  of  years. 
Hence  the  importance  of  devoted,  consistent,  and  con- 


MOTIVES  FOR  BECOMING  A  TEACHER  25 

secrated  persons  in  this  work.  And  this  is  the  reason 
why  it  becomes  so  important  to  consider  the  motives 
for  entering  this  field  of  labor.  The  choosing  of  one's 
life  work  should  call  for  serious  consideration,  as  it  is 
a  crisis  in  any  young  person's  life.  During  school  life, 
whether  it  be  in  the  elementary  or  high  school,  in 
college,  university,  or  other  school,  the  individual  is 
under  tutelage,  is  guided  by  older  and  wiser  persons. 
He  has  been  care  free  and  the  problems  of  life  have 
not  rested  heavily  upon  him.  But  now  the  time  for 
the  choice  of  a  calling  has  arrived,  responsibilities 
must  be  assumed,  and  if  the  teaching  profession  is 
selected,  he  must  not  forget  that  the  future  of  many 
others  will  be  largely  determined  by  the  measure  of  his 
wisdom  and  faithfulness.  For  it  is  no  light  matter  to 
become  a  teacher  of  youth.  Therefore  we  consider  the 
various  motives  which  actuate  in  the  making  of  a 
choice. 

i.  The  earning  of  a  livelihood. —  No  doubt  many  a 
young  man  enters  teaching  with  no  higher  motive  than 
to  make  a  living.  Now  to  support  one's  self  by  honor- 
able enterprise  is  certainly  worthy,  and  I  find  no  fault 
with  the  teacher  who  seeks  to  improve  his  condition 
financially.  "The  laborer  is  worthy  of  his  hire"  in 
this  as  in  other  occupations.  But  this  is  not  a  sufficient 
motive.  At  a  teacher's  institute  the  question  was 
asked  as  to  the  motives  for  becoming  a  teacher.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  replies.  "Because  I  thought 
it  an  easy  job.  Nothing  to  do  but  sit  in  a  chair  for 
five  or  six  hours  and  read  questions  out  of  a  book. 
All  Saturdays  free  and  a  three  months'  vacation  in 
summer."  "I  preferred  it  to  being  a  hired  girl." 


26  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

"The  pay  is  better  than  work  on  a  farm  and  the  work 
easier. "  To  boys  brought  up  on  a  farm  where  wages 
are  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  dollars  a  month  and 
where  twelve  to  sixteen  hours  a  day  of  labor  are  ex- 
pected, a  salary  of  six  or  seven  hundred  dollars  a  year 
where  only  six  hours  a  day  are  required,  with  many 
vacations,  is  very  alluring.  Such  boys  are  apt  to 
measure  the  value  of  money  by  the  standards  of 
country  life  to  which  they  are  accustomed,  not  realizing 
the  thousand  and  one  expenses  for  clothing,  board, 
amusement,  etc.,  incident  to  town  life  and  the  style 
of  living  that  the  teacher  must  maintain,  which  are 
quite  unknown  to  the  simple  life  of  the  farm.  Nor 
do  they  take  into  account  that  six  hours  a  day  by  no 
means  represents  the  time  that  the  faithful  and  suc- 
cessful teacher  must  devote  to  his  profession.  They 
see  only  the  two  extremes,  hard  work,  long  hours, 
small  pay,  and  narrow  life  on  the  one  hand,  and  ease, 
short  hours,  large  pay,  good  clothing,  respectability, 
honor,  and  a  chance  to  mingle  in  the  great  activities 
of  the  world,  on  the  other  hand.  If  they  would  take 
the  trouble  to  examine  the  facts,  they  would  find  that 
the  farmer  really  has  more  ease,  more  independence, 
and  a  better  living,  and  is  far  more  likely  to  make  a 
fortune.  Rich  school  teachers  are  exceedingly  rare, 
and  very  few  have  acquired  a  competency  from  the 
salaries  paid  them. 

I  do  not  present  these  facts  for  the  sake  of  discour- 
aging farm  boys  from  selecting  teaching  as  their  life 
work.  Indeed,  many  of  the  great  educators  of  our 
country  today  began  life  amid  the  hardships  and  re- 
sponsibilities of  the  farm.  Such  an  experience  fur- 


MOTIVES   FOR   BECOMING   A   TEACHER  27 

nishes  an  excellent  foundation  for  the  virility,  the 
faithfulness,  the  devotion  to  duty,  the  sympathy  for 
those  struggling  to  free  themselves  from  the  bonds  of 
ignorance,  which  the  schoolroom  so  strongly  invites. 
The  profession  of  teaching,  fortunately,  has  always 
appealed  to  those  brought  up  amid  the  simple  life 
of  the  rural  community.  At  a  recent  meeting  of  the 
educational  leaders  of  a  great  state  —  the  superin- 
tendents, inspectors,  principals,  and  normal  school 
professors  —  it  was  found  that  out  of  fifty  men  present, 
forty-nine  had  been  raised  in  the  country,  most  of  them 
on  the  farm.  These  men,  while  undoubtedly  first  at- 
tracted to  teaching  by  the  apparent  opportunities  to 
improve  their  condition  as  above  stated,  have  found 
the  work  congenial  and  inspiring,  and  they  have  meas- 
ured up  to  its  requirements  in  the  noblest  manner. 
Their  sturdy  frames,  their  good  habits,  their  self- 
reliance,  their  industry,  their  virility,  their  training  in 
meeting  and  carrying  responsibility,  all  these  things, 
gained  under  the  primitive  conditions  of  farm  life, 
have  furnished  a  magnificent  capital  upon  which  to 
draw  all  their  lives,  and  these  possessions  have  been  a 
large  element  in  their  success.  So  the  teaching  pro- 
fession will  ever  invite  this  class  of  young  men,  not  as 
a  means  of  emolument,  but  as  a  means  of  far  greater 
usefulness  and  more  real  success  than  financial  enter- 
prise can  offer. 

So,  too,  many  a  girl,  having  obtained  an  education 
somewhat  beyond  that  of  most  girls  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, casts  about  for  something  to  do.  It  is  seldom 
that  she  will  go  out  to  service.  While  we  have  as 
yet  no  class  distinctions  in  this  country,  unfortunately, 


28  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

there  is  a  decided  tendency  among  those  who  have 
been  to  high  school  to  look  upon  manual  labor  as  de- 
grading to  them.  Such,  surely,  ought  not  to  be  the 
case,  and  our  schools  are  lax  in  their  duty  to  the  rising 
generation  by  failing  to  meet  this  tendency.  Right 
education  will  prepare  for  life  whatever  its  duties  may 
be  and  it  will  sanctify  and  ennoble  honest  labor  of 
all  kinds  so  that  the  injunction  of  the  Bible,  "  Whatso- 
ever thy  hand  findeth  to  do,  do  it  with  thy  might/' 
will  be  carried  out  in  letter  and  spirit.  The  greatest 
of  all  Teachers  devoted  a  large  part  of  His  life  to  labor 
with  His  hands  at  the  carpenter's  bench,  thus  forever 
glorifying  and  ennobling  honest  toil.  Oh,  that  we 
could  implant  in  the  lives  of  the  young  committed  to 
our  care  something  of  His  noble  spirit  and  motive! 
Few  educated  girls  are  willing  to  learn  the  arts  of  do- 
mestic life  so  important  to  the  perpetuity  and  the 
happiness  of  the  home.  Nothing  so  contributes  to  the 
comfort  and  happiness  of  the  home  as  the  ability 
on  the  part  of  its  presiding  genius  intelligently  to  direct 
every  feature  of  household  activity.  Every  German 
girl,  no  matter  what  her  station  in  life,  is  trained  most 
thoroughly  in  all  these  duties,  and  for  this  reason  she 
is  prepared  to  be  the  companion  and  helpmate  of  her 
husband.  For,  after  all,  the  noblest  place  for  woman 
is  the  home  with  its  sacred  duties  of  wifehood  and 
motherhood. 

But  what  has  all  this  to  do  with  girls  who  choose 
teaching  as  their  life  work?  It  is  a  statement  of  a 
well-known  fact  to  say  that  comparatively  few  girls 
who  enter  the  field  of  teaching  expect  to  make  this  a 
permanent  occupation.  The  fact  that  such  large 


MOTIVES   FOR   BECOMING  A   TEACHER  29 

numbers  of  them  marry  after  a  few  years  in  the  school- 
room is  proof  of  the  statement.  While  it  is  admitted 
that  this  is  bad  for  the  schools  in  that  it  necessitates 
the  constant  introduction  of  new  and  inexperienced 
teachers,  it  is  a  good  thing  for  society  at  large  because 
it  adds  to  the  number  of  educated  and  intelligent 
wives  and  mothers.  If  the  state,  therefore,  has  been 
at  the  expense  of  preparing  girls  for  teaching  it  is  a 
good  investment  even  though  many  of  them  teach  for 
only  a  few  years. 

Many  New  Teachers.  —  Four-fifths  of  the  teachers  of 
this  country  are  women  and  the  proportion  is  ever 
growing  higher.  Inasmuch  as  nearly  one-fifth  of  our 
teachers  withdraw  from  the  work  each  year,  the  prob- 
lem of  preparing  a  sufficient  number  of  teachers  is 
very  hard  to  solve.  The  large  preponderance  of  women 
teachers  is  the  chief  cause  of  this  condition  of  things. 
Men  enter  the  work  for  life  and  remain  in  it,  while 
women  do  not  usually  enter  it  for  life  and  often  do 
not  remain  in  it.  Most  of  the  withdrawals  are  from 
the  ranks  of  the  women.  So  while  girls  often  teach 
as  a  temporary  makeshift,  and  we  cannot  condemn 
the  motive,  it  is  not  the  highest  motive.  I  gladly 
admit  too,  that  in  many  cases  a  higher  motive  is  at- 
tained when  they  get  settled  in  teaching  and  they 
come  to  love  the  work  as  a  wonderful  opportunity  to 
do  good.  They  continue  to  teach  because  they  love 
it,  and  many  would  not  change  their  occupation  for 
anything  that  the  world  has  to  offer.  As  positions 
become  permanent,  as  salaries  become  more  enticing, 
as  teachers  are  treated  with  greater  respect,  more  and 
more  women  are  choosing  teaching  as  their  life  work. 


30  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  remark  that  there  is  a 
hint  in  the  above  discussion  as  to  why,  on  the  whole, 
the  salaries  of  men  will  always  be  higher  than  those 
of  women.  It  is  not  a  question  of  efficiency  or  of  suc- 
cess, for  certainly  women  are  the  equals  of  men  in 
both  of  these  respects;  nor  am  I  considering  whether 
or  not  at  a  certain  period  of  a  child's  life  women  are 
superior  as  teachers,  and  at  another  period  men  are 
more  effective;  but  it  is  a  question  of  business  expedi- 
ency and  obedience  to  the  law  of  supply  and  demand. 
A  larger  proportion  of  men  than  of  women  select 
teaching  as  their  life  work,  their  average  term  of  service 
is  longer,  and  therefore  men  on  the  whole  will  always 
command  higher  pay.  When  women  prepare  them- 
selves as  well,  prove  as  efficient,  and  continue  as  long 
in  the  work  as  men,  the  question  of  sex  ought  not  to 
enter  into  the  fixing  of  salary. 

2.  The  desire  for  self -improvement.  —  This  is  a  sec- 
ond motive  that  actuates  many  young  persons  to 
choose  teaching.  They  are  filled .  with  ambition  to 
improve  themselves,  a  most  worthy  ambition  that 
surely  should  be  encouraged.  And  teaching  certainly 
offers  rare  opportunity  for  the  attainment  of  such 
ambition.  Nothing  so  thoroughly  clarifies  one's  ideas 
of  a  subject  as  to  be  obliged  so  to  present  it  to  the 
minds  of  children  that  they  can  fully  comprehend  it. 
The  earnest  and  conscientious  teacher  will  not  be  satis- 
fied to  present  a  truth  superficially.  Therefore  he 
must  have  more  than  a  superficial  knowledge,  he 
must  thoroughly  master  it.  In  presenting  it  to  his 
pupils  by  various  methods,  with  inexhaustible  patience, 
and  by  many  repetitions,  in  order  that  they  may  surely 


MOTIVES   FOR   BECOMING  A   TEACHER  31 

comprehend  and  fix  the  lesson  taught,  it  unfolds  itself 
to  the  mind  of  the  teacher  with  added  force  day  by 
day.  What  teacher  has  not  experienced  a  wonderful 
revelation  of  truth  -to  his  own  soul  while  he  has  been 
eagerly  seeking  to  clarify  it  to  suit  the  vision  of  his 
pupils?  The  teacher's  calling  furnishes  unsurpassed 
opportunities  for  self-improvement.  In  stimulating  the 
intellectual  growth  of  children  there  is  correspond- 
ing, perhaps  even  greater,  intellectual  growth  of  the 
teacher.  Nor  is  this  growth  limited  merely  to  the 
intellectual.  What  superintendent  has  not  witnessed 
the  evolution  of  the  frivolous  and  irresponsible  young 
beginner  into  the  thoughtful  and  conscientious  teacher, 
who  has  been  led  by  contact  with  innocent  and  trust- 
ing childhood  to  measure  up  to  her  great  responsibility 
for  the  moral  and  spiritual,  as  well  as  intellectual  wel- 
fare of  the  young  lives  committed  to  her  guidance? 
An  interest  in  these  sides  of  the  lives  of  her  charges 
reacts  upon  her  life  and  makes  her  better.  Indeed, 
the  teacher  who  does  not  grow  even  faster  than  her 
pupils  grow,  who  does  not  become  gentler  and  more 
sympathetic  as  the  years  roll  around,  has  missed  her 
calling  and  should  seek  some  other  field.  Contact 
with  intellectual  life  stimulates  thought  and  zeal  for 
higher  attainments,  association  with  the  pure  and  holy 
inspires  to  better  living  and  awakens  desire  for  personal 
righteousness,  and  so  to  live  in  daily  contact  with  pure 
and  innocent  children  cannot  fail  to  make  one  better. 
For  children  are  the  "Gift  of  God,"  and  they  reflect 
His  love  and  likeness  unless  they  have  been  spoiled 
by  evil  association.  Most  children  have  not  been  so 
spoiled,  they  are  good,  and  pure,  and  lovely.  To  ap- 


32  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

predate  this  thought  one  has  only  to  study  the  splendid 
optimism  of  Judge  Lindsay  in  his  dealings  with  the 
toughest  boys  of  Denver. 

Every  great  educator  in  history  began  teaching  with 
comparatively  small  equipment  in  general  knowledge 
and  in  pedagogical  skill.  But  every  one  of  them  im- 
proved himself  while  he  improved  his  pupils,  grew 
into  a  far  wider  horizon  while  he  extended  the  horizon 
of  those  he  taught.  In  the  largest  degree,  perhaps 
even  more  in  this  than  in  other  callings,  "  Giving  doth 
not  impoverish"  but  enricheth  in  this  moral  and 
intellectual  work  of  the  teacher.  I  think  that  this 
explains  why  lapses  from  moral  life  are  less  frequent 
in  the  teacher's  profession  than  in  any  other. 

The  young  person  who  becomes  a  teacher  for  the 
sake  of  improving  himself,  does  so  from  a  worthy 
motive,  provided  this  is  not  a  mere  stepping-stone  to 
some  other  calling.  And  in  teaching  he  will  find  the 
best  of  opportunities  for  the  fulfillment  of  the  ambition 
to  make  the  most  of  one's  capacities. 

3.  The  Patriotic  Motive.  —  Love  of  country  is  a 
natural  and  commendable  impulse  in  every  human 
heart.  Many  think  that  it  finds  expression  only  in 
answering  the  call  to  arms  when  the  nation's  life  is  in 
peril.  In  the  late  Spanish  war  many  young  men, 
inspired  by  enthusiastic  patriotism,  enlisted  to  serve 
their  country.  In  1861,  Lincoln's  call  for  volunteers 
was  answered  by  hundreds  of  thousands  of  men  ready 
and  willing  to  give  their  life-blood  for  the  preservation 
of  the  Union.  Even  more  prompt  was  the  response 
to  Lincoln's  call  in  1863  when  Lee  invaded  Pennsyl- 
vania. Forty  thousand  veterans,  of  both  the  blue 


MOTIVES   FOR   BECOMING  A   TEACHER  33 

and  grey,  have  been  the  nation's  guests  on  the  im- 
mortal field  of  Gettysburg  where  fifty  years  ago  in 
fierce  conflict  they  sought  each  other's  destruction. 
At  this  semi-centennial  celebration  they  sang  their  old 
war  songs,  shouted  their  battle  cries,  waved  their 
tattered  battle  flags  —  the  stars  and  bars  mingling 
with  the  stars  and  stripes  —  told  over  again  the  camp- 
fire  stories  of  heroic  deeds,  marched  again  to  fife  and 
drum  with  feeble  and  halting  step,  reacted  again 
Pickett's  awful  charge  and  the  stubborn  resistance  at 
" Bloody  Angle,"  listened  to  patriotic  speeches  —  sad 
remnants  of  the  mighty  armies  who  half  a  century 
ago  on  that  field  decided  the  fate  of  the  Republic. 
All  bitterness  had  disappeared  forever,  and  the  soldiers 
of  north  and  south  joined  with  equal  heartiness  in 
singing,  "'Way  down  South  in  Dixie,"  " Three  cheers 
for  the  red,  white  and  blue,"  and  "  We're  tenting  again 
on  the  old  camp  ground."  Nothing  in  a  generation 
has  so  stirred  the  patriotic  fervor  of  the  land  as  this 
great  reunion  at  Gettysburg  in  July,  1913,  at  this  half- 
century  anniversary. 

But  the  opportunity  to  respond  to  the  call  to  arms, 
fortunately,  does  not  come  in  this  land  of  ours  to  a  whole 
generation  of  men.  Hence  this  way  of  showing  patriot- 
ism can  never  make  its  appeal  to  them.  Shall  they 
therefore  be  any  less  patriotic,  and  is  there  no  other 
way  of  proving  one's  love  of  country?  In  a  country 
like  ours  where  the  people  rule,  the  call  for  true 
patriotism  is  constant  and  imperative.  For  if  the 
people  are  not  patriotic  under  a  free  government 
that  government  will  soon  cease  to  be.  Men  are 
called  upon  often  at  great  personal  sacrifice  to  serve 


34  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

their  country  in  public  office,  while  the  great  masses 
must  exercise  the  right  of  franchise  in  the  choice  of 
proper  men  to  serve  them  in  national  and  local  affairs. 
There  is  no  safety  for  our  institutions  unless  this  choice 
is  made,  not  from  narrow  partisan  motives,  not  for  sel- 
fish purposes,  but  with  a  sincere  and  intelligent  concep- 
tion of  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  a  free  people. 

Vast  hordes  of  people  come  to  this  country  with  no 
knowledge  of  our  institutions.  They  must  be  taught 
the  economy  of  our  governmental  system.  They 
must  be  instructed  in  our  laws.  They  must  not  only 
assimilate  our  language  and  become  acquainted  with 
our  customs,  but  they  must  also  grasp  the  spirit  of 
our  manner  of  ruling.  Accustomed  to  strong,  perhaps 
despotic  government,  it  is  hard  for  them  to  under- 
stand that  liberty  does  not  mean  license,  that  freedom 
adds  to  personal  responsibility. 

Nor  do  they  alone  need  training  for  citizenship. 
Young  America  must  also  be  taught  that  patriotism 
means  more  than  readiness  to  spring  to  arms  in  the 
hour  of  national  danger,  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
seldom  comes;  they  must  know  that  patriotism  makes 
its  greatest  demands  in  times  of  peace  when  the  nation 
is  not  aroused  by  appeals  to  sustain  our  country's 
honor  against  an  outward  foe;  nor  even  in  the  midst 
of  an  exciting  political  campaign  when  orators  and 
newspapers  seek  to  win  men  to  their  party  beliefs. 
He  is  most  patriotic  who  is  obedient  to  law,  who 
does  his  duty,  not  only  at  the  polls,  but  in  every  activ- 
ity of  life,  and  who  stands  ready  unselfishly  to  serve 
his  country  in  peace  or  war  whenever  the  call  comes. 

Obviously  the  great  work  of  implanting  these  high 


MOTIVES   FOR   BECOMING   A   TEACHER  35 

ideals  rests  largely  with  the  public  school.  It  alone 
reaches  the  whole  mass  of  the  people,  it  alone  can  shape 
the  future  of  the  nation.  The  teacher  is  the  "High 
priest  of  the  future/'  and  as  he  thinks,  as  he  acts,  as 
he  teaches,  so  will  the  men  and  women  of  the  future 
think,  and  act,  and  live.  Hence  the  teacher  must  be 
a  patriot.  The  German  government,  recognizing  the 
great  importance  of  this  truth,  requires  every  teacher, 
upon  induction  into  office,  to  take  an  oath  of  allegiance. 
We  do  not  advocate  this,  nevertheless,  the  teacher 
must  have  a  high  conception  of  duty  towards  his 
country  and  must  appreciate  his  opportunity  to  serve 
it.  To  enter  upon  teaching  for  the  sake  of  serving 
his  country  by  teaching  children  real  patriotism  is  a 
most  noble  motive  for  any  young  man.  Not  on  the 
battlefield,  not  in  the  halls  of  legislation,  not  on  the 
judge's  bench,  not  in  the  arena  of  diplomacy,  how- 
ever noble  each  of  these  may  be,  but  in  the  school- 
room he  serves  by  shaping  the  lives  of  the  embryo 
men  and  women  and  inspiring  them  with  intelligent 
and  consecrated  love  of  country.  After  Prussia  had 
been  crushed  by  Napoleon  in  1806  and  lay  bleeding 
under  his  awful  tyranny,  it  was  the  schools  and  the 
universities  that  aroused  the  people  and  prepared  them 
to  throw  off  the  yoke  at  the  battle  of  Leipsic  in  1813. 
"The  schoolmaster  has  won  our  victories,"  said  Von 
Moltke,  after  Germany  had  overwhelmed  France  in 
1871.  I  know  of  no  higher  opportunity  for  a  young 
man  who  is  enthusiastic  for  his  country  than  that 
which  teaching  offers.  The  invitation  to  such  is  loud 
and  pressing,  and  in  no  field  of  endeavor  is  there 
greater  opportunity  to  satisfy  the  loftiest  ambition. 


36  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

4.  The  Altruistic  Motive.  —  What  has  already  been 
said  surely  calls  for  altruism.  I  shall  however,  present 
the  altruistic  motive  in  a  broader  sense  —  the  desire 
to  be  of  service  to  one's  fellowman.  During  the 
adolescent  period,  when  most  young  people  begin  to 
think  of  their  life  work,  there  springs  up  an  overwhelm- 
ing desire  to  be  of  use  to  mankind.  It  is  true,  un- 
fortunately, that  many  lose  sight  of  this  impulse  later 
in  life  and  never  carry  it  out;  but  there  is,  neverthe- 
less, such  a  time  when  the  young  have  large  ambitions, 
when  they  look  forward  to  doing  great  things  in  the 
world.  Nor  is  this  ambition  by  any  means  entirely 
selfish.  Doubtless  environment  has  a  great  influence 
in  shaping  their  ideals.  Children  brought  up  in  good 
homes,  surrounded  by  an  atmosphere  of  purity  and 
under  good  example,  will  naturally  be  more  likely  to 
choose  the  right  attitude.  But  all  children  possess 
the  altruistic  spirit  in  some  measure  and  this  fact 
should  not  be  lost  sight  of  in  their  education.  It  is 
the  essence  of  unselfishness.  Teaching  offers,  in  a 
rare  degree,  opportunities  for  the  satisfaction  of  this 
innate  desire.  It  places  one  in  the  way  of  leading 
them  to  be  virtuous,  of  fitting  them  to  be  successful 
in  life,  of  forming  their  character,  of  guiding  them 
into  the  realm  of  the  spiritual,  and  of  leading  young 
people  into  the  larger  life,  of  preparing  them  for 
good  citizenship.  Many  a  man  has  been  saved  to  a 
useful  life  by  the  elevating  influence  of  the  school 
and  its  consecrated  teacher.  No  occupation  calls  for  a 
greater  spirit  of  altruism  than  teaching. 

I  think  that  the  altruistic  motive  to  become  a  teacher 
is  much  the  same  as  that  which  should  lead  a  young 


MOTIVES   FOR   BECOMING   A   TEACHER  37 

man  to  consecrate  himself  to  the  Christian  ministry. 
The  teacher's  calling  demands  the  same  self-sacrifice, 
the  same  devotion,  the  same  altruism,  and  offers  op- 
portunities to  be  of  service  similar  to  those  of  the  min- 
ister's calling.  And  in  every  one  of  these  things  the 
opportunity  to  serve  his  f ellowmen  is  fully  as  great 
for  the  teacher  as  for  the  clergyman. 

I  would  have  every  young  man  or  woman  who  con- 
templates entering  upon  this  work  to  weigh  well  their 
motives;  and  if  the  motives  are  ignoble,  if  they  are 
selfish,  if  they  consider  this  as  a  mere  makeshift  or 
stepping-stone  to  some  other  work,  I  urge  them  not 
to  enter  this  field.  There  are  plenty  of  other  openings 
for  young  men  whose  ambitions  are  in  a  different 
direction,  and  for  young  women  too,  where  they  can 
be  of  service  to  the  world  and  satisfy  whatever  am- 
bitions they  may  have.  And  also  if  there  are  some 
already  in  the  harness  who  read  these  pages,  and  who 
upon  careful  analysis,  find  that  they  do  not  measure 
up  to  the  standards  outlined,  and  who  have  no  ex- 
pectation of  measuring  up  to  them,  to  such  let  me  say 
self-respect  and  a  regard  for  the  fitness  of  things  de- 
mands that  they  withdraw  at  the  earliest  possible 
moment. 

With  the  loftiest  of  motives  would  I  summon  young 
men  and  young  women  of  finest  abilities  and  noblest 
character  to  this  great  work.  If  they  have  lower  mo- 
tives, this  is  not  the  work  for  them.  Teaching  is  too 
noble  and  too  sacred  a  calling  to  be  trifled  with.  There 
is  no  other  profession  that  offers  such  genuine  rewards, 
that  brings  such  joy  in  accomplishment,  that  furnishes 
such  opportunity  to  be  of  service  to  one's  fellowman. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  TEACHER 

FULLY  ninety  per  cent  of  the  teachers  in  this  land 
had  little  or  no  professional  training  when  they  began 
to  teach.  We  have  discussed  what  motives  have  led 
to  their  adopting  this  profession.  Many  of  them  have 
a  natural  bent  for  teaching  and  such  young  people 
are  apt  to  be  successful.  But  a  natural  liking  for  chil- 
dren and  the  possession  of  a  disposition  to  control  and 
teach  them  are  not  sure  signs  that  the  teaching  power  is 
inherent.  There  are  few  persons  who  do  not  love 
children,  therefore  this  cannot  be  taken  as  an  indica- 
tion. Most  girls  love  to  gather  little  children  together 
and  play  " Keeping  School,"  yet  many  of  them  never 
become  teachers.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  a  rare  thing 
that  a  boy  acts  as  teacher  in  play,  yet  many  boys 
become  teachers.  Therefore  these  early  indications 
must  not  be  taken  too  seriously.  And  this  is  true  with 
other  callings  as  well  as  teaching.  How  few  men 
are  following  the  occupation  that  their  friends  thought 
they  were  cut  out  for,  and  how  often  tendencies 
in  children  that  are  rather  marked  and  that  seem 
to  hint  at  the  destined  field  of  endeavor,  lose  their 
force  in  later  years;  these  early  interests  wane,  and 
an  altogether  different  occupation  is  chosen. 

The  "Born"  Teacher. —  In  former  times  the  term 
"born"  teacher  was  very  common  and  it  was  believed 


THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  TEACHER          39 

that  to  be  a  successful  teacher  one  must  possess  certain 
innate,  unusual,  mysterious  qualifications.  In  public 
estimation  the  most  important  of  these  qualifications 
was  the  power  to  control  children.  I  visited  a  country 
school  in  charge  of  a  woman  who  had  been  recognized 
for  many  years  as  "the  best  teacher  in  the  county/' 
as  a  "  born  teacher,"  as  "a  fine  disciplinarian,"  etc.  I 
found  a  woman  stern  and  uncompromising  in  manner, 
rigid  in  her  requirements,  a  veritable  martinet.  She 
made  the  children  "toe  the  scratch,"  and  everything 
was  as  automatic  and  machine-like  as  a  printing  press. 
She  could  "hear"  the  lessons  and  determine  how 
much  the  children  had  committed  to  memory  out  of 
their  text-books.  She  could  make  the  children  be- 
have by  her  dominant  personality,  but  could  not 
lead  them  into  that  self-control,  that  manliness,  that 
genuineness,  that  sense  of  freedom  and  the  power 
rightly  to  use  it,  which  those  teachers  impart  who  labor 
from  love  and  from  a  deep  insight  into  the  nature  of 
children.  This  woman  was  not  a  "born"  teacher 
although  she  had  won  that  reputation. 

But  a  truer  conception  of  the  "born"  teacher  is 
gained  by  contact  with  teachers  possessing  a  genius 
for  imparting  knowledge,  and  having  the  power  to 
awaken  interest,  to  arouse  ambition,  to  stimulate 
intellectual  activity,  to  engender  a  longing  for  noble 
things  and  a  hatred  for  the  ignoble.  Such  teachers 
there  always  have  been.  They  are  exemplified  in  the 
person  of  Confucius,  of  Socrates,  of  Pestalozzi,  of 
Abelard,  of  Thomas  Arnold,  of  Mark  Hopkins,  of 
Mary  Lyon,  and  highest  of  all  in  our  Great  Teacher. 
Many  a  man  who  has  had  such  a  teacher  looks  back 


40  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

with  gratitude  and  reverence  upon  him  and  ever 
holds  him  in  sacred  memory.  Whether  these  persons 
have  been  great  because  of  natural  or  of  acquired 
qualifications,  happy  the  boy  or  girl  who  has  had  the 
privilege  of  coming  under  their  influence.  The  truth 
is,  the  teacher  is  no  more  "born"  than  the  lawyer, 
the  doctor,  the  carpenter  or  the  dressmaker  is  "born." 
Some  men  will  make  better  lawyers  than  others,  and 
some  women  will  excel  in  dressmaking,  and  it  will 
readily  be  conceded  that  there  are  certain  innate 
qualities  which  make  for  success  in  any  profession, 
in  teaching  as  well  as  others,  but  no  more  than  in 
others.  Normal  schools  admit  students  who  possess 
sufficient  scholarship,  good  moral  character,  and  a 
healthy  body.  They  take  no  note  of  natural  fitness 
or  innate  qualities,  because  few  of  the  candidates  have 
had  previous  teaching  experience.  Yet  a  large  pro- 
portion of  those  received  become  successful  teachers, 
fully  as  large  as  the  product  of  any  other  kind  of 
professional  school.  The  State  of  New  Jersey  has  given 
her  normal  graduates  a  second-grade  certificate  upon 
completion  of  the  normal  school  course,  which  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  life  certificate  after  two  years'  successful 
teaching.  Recently  the  State  Board  of  Education  has 
changed  this  and  now  gives  a  life  certificate  upon  gradu- 
ation because  in  the  last  twenty-five  years  not  one  of 
the  nearly  five  thousand  graduates  has  been  refused 
the  advanced  certificate. 

Teaching  is  a  profession  and  normal  schools  very 
properly  are  founded  to  train  young  persons  in  the 
science  and  art  of  teaching.  No  one  who  desires  to 
become  a  teacher  need  worry  over  the  question  of 


THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  TEACHER          41 

his  capacity  to  teach.  If  one  desires  to  become  a 
teacher;  if  one  possesses  the  necessary  intellectual,  moral 
and  physical  qualifications,  and  the  ambition  to  suc- 
ceed; and  if  one  be  willing  to  work  for  success,  one 
may  confidently  enter  upon  the  professional  training. 
If  a  mistake  has  been  made  it  is  almost  sure  to  be  dis- 
covered before  the  course  is  completed. 

Need  of  Growth  while  Teaching.  —  Having  entered 
upon  teaching  with  or  without  professional  preparation, 
the  teacher  must  continue  to  grow  or  there  will  be  no 
educational  progress.  Education  is  progressing  with 
us;  new  problems  are  arising  as  old  ones  are  solved; 
educational  agencies  are  alert  and  progressive;  experi- 
ments are  being  tried  and  old  theories  and  practices 
abandoned  for  new  ones  based  upon  the  results  of  re- 
search; and  thinkers  are  devoting  their  intelligence  to 
educational  matters  as  never  before.  Moreover,  the 
public  school  and  its  mission  never  had  so  strong  a 
place  in  the  affections  of  the  American  people  as  at 
the  present  time. 

To  keep  pace  with  these  wonderful  movements  the 
teacher  must  continue  to  grow.  The  normal  school 
that  best  accomplishes  its  mission  does  not  send  forth 
its  graduates  puffed  up  with  their  professional  knowl- 
edge or  skill,  but  rather,  while  it  gives  them  confidence 
in  themselves  and  in  the  work  they  have  done,  it 
opens  up  to  them  the  great  questions  concerning  educa- 
tion and  hints  at  their  solution.  True  education  makes 
one  humble  rather  than  conceited,  unsatisfied  with 
one's  attainments  rather  than  contented.  It  is  the 
ignorant  man  who  has  a  high  opinion  of  his  attain- 
ments. Place  a  candle  in  a  dark  place  and  it  will  light 


42  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

up  a  space  say  twenty  feet  in  diameter.  All  within 
that  space  will  be  known.  But  just  in  the  horizon 
thus  formed  there  will  be  obscure  and  partially  known 
objects,  while  beyond  it  all  is  unknown.  Place  a 
lamp  at  the  same  center  and  the  diameter  of  the 
lighted  circle  may  be  fifty  feet.  The  unknown  objects 
just  beyond  the  former  horizon  now  become  clear 
while  many  more  objects  within  the  extended  space 
are  brought  to  knowledge.  But  in  the  new  horizon 
there  are  still  more  unknown  objects  than  in  the  first 
one.  Carry  the  illustration  further  by  using  an  arc 
light  capable  of  illuminating  a  space  of  one  hundred 
feet  in  diameter.  Once  more  the  previously  dim  and 
uncertain  becomes  clear,  but  again  the  number  of 
uncertain  or  partially  known  objects  is  multiplied  in 
the  greatly  enlarged  horizon.  The  vision  in  the  last 
case  covers  far  more  than  in  the  first.  But  at  the  same 
time  it  reveals  far  more  of  what  is  unknown,  of  what 
is  yet  to  be  explained,  and  hints  at  innumerable  mys- 
teries lying  beyond  the  new  horizon.  So  it  is  with 
human  knowledge.  The  further  you  extend  the  in- 
tellectual vision  the  more  knowledge  is  gained,  but  at 
the  same  time  it  is  revealed  that  there  is  far  more  yet 
to  be  known.  The  truly  wise  are  always  humble 
because  they  have  a  clearer  conception  of  the  un- 
fathomable depths  of  human  knowledge  and  of  the 
impossibility  of  mastering  it  all.  No  wonder  that 
Sir  Isaac  Newton,  after  having  reached  the  summit  of 
the  world's  scientific  knowledge  of  his  time,  exclaimed, 
"I  am  but  a  child  gathering  pebbles  on  the  sea  shore." 
The  graduate  of  normal  school,  college,  or  university, 
therefore,  instead  of  having  "  finished "  his  education, 


THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  TEACHER          43 

is  just  ready  to  grow,  and  in  no  profession  is  there  a 
greater  inducement  to  further  growth  than  in  teaching. 
Means  of  Development  and  Growth.  —  I  desire  to 
show  the  means  of  growth  both  to  the  beginner  with 
little  or  with  much  preparation,  and  to  the  teacher  of 
experience.  For  both  must  grow  or  they  will  become 
stale  and  non-progressive.  It  may  be  that  I  will  say 
some  commonplace  things.  But  it  is  better  to  be 
accused  of  being  commonplace  than  of  being  incom- 
prehensible. 

I.    READING 

(a).  Educational  journals.  —  No  matter  how  isolated 
the  teacher  may  be  she  can  never  be  shut  out  from  the 
opportunity  to  read  educational  works.  There  are 
plenty  of  educational  journals  which  abound  in  prac- 
tical suggestions  for  the  schoolroom,  in  inspiring 
articles,  and  which  furnish  excellent  professional 
training.  A  good  educational  paper  will  return  many 
times  its  cost  in  inspiration,  in  helpful  suggestions,  in 
disclosing  better  methods,  and  in  promoting  educational 
advancement.  Any  teacher  who  will  regularly  read 
a  good  educational  journal  may  with  assurance  be 
expected  to  succeed.  I  have  before  me  such  a  paper 
that  contains  educational  news,  methods  of  teaching, 
illustrative  material,  inspirational  articles,  suggestions 
as  to  school  management,  material  for  entertainments, 
such  as  Decoration  Day,  Thanksgiving,  and  Christmas. 
The  teacher  can  find  here  just  the  help  she  needs  for 
her  daily  work,  and  at  the  same  time  keep  in  touch 
with  educational  movements.  Not  only  will  the  chil- 
dren get  the  advantage  of  this  live  material,  but  the 


44  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

teacher  also  will  promote  her  own  growth  and  advance- 
ment. 

(b).  Standard  pedagogical  works.  —  While  educational 
periodicals  stimulate  and  enlarge  the  immediate  work 
of  the  schoolroom,  no  teacher  can  afford  to  limit 
her  reading  to  these  alone.  There  should  be  system- 
atic study  of  standard  works.  The  former  provide 
for  the  present,  the  latter  are  looking  to  the  future. 
Educational  papers  are  more  or  less  transient  in  their 
effects;  standard  works  seek  permanent  results..  Many 
superintendents  offer  their  teachers  courses  of  reading 
in  which  are  outlined  suitable  books  for  each  year. 
Examinations  are  held,  and  certificates  are  given  to 
those  who  complete  the  course.  Such  reading  often 
furnishes  the  superintendent  an  excellent  means  of 
estimating  the  progress  of  his  teachers  and  in  deter- 
mining their  worthiness  of  advancement.  In  many 
cities  and  counties  there  are  teachers'  libraries,  and 
in  some  cases  the  State  duplicates  the  amount  of 
money,  up  to  a  given  sum,  which  the  teachers  raise 
for  this  purpose.1 

But  every  teacher  should  possess  a  few  choice  edu- 
cational books  of  her  own  for  ready  reference  and 
study.  We  have  now  a  rich  pedagogical  literature 
covering  every  field  of  educational  endeavor.  A 
generation  ago  one  could  almost  count  on  the  fingers 
of  one  hand  the  number  of  books  in  English  on  this 
subject  that  were  worthy  of  perusal.  But  this  is  no 
longer  so.  Educational  writers  have  been  wonderfully 
active  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  and  each 

1  In  New  Jersey  this  sum  is  $100  a  y«tr. 


THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  TEACHER  45 

year  witnesses  the  production  of  hundreds  of  new 
books  on  this  great  subject.  Moreover  writers  have 
ceased  to  be  solicitous  of  being  thought  profound, 
stress  being  laid  upon  simplicity  and  lucidity.  "I 
hate  this  subject  because  I  cannot  understand  it,"  ex- 
claimed a  young  teacher  who  was  required  to  read 
through  one  of  the  old-fashioned  works  on  pedagogy 
for  an  examination. 

The  science  and  art  of  teaching  furnishes  a  field  of 
interesting  material  unsurpassed  by  any  other  field 
of  human  thought.  Why  present  this  material  in 
language  hard  to  comprehend  or  in  terms  that  are 
obscure?  Language  is  the  vehicle  of  thought  and  it 
is  the  thought  that  we  are  after.  Why  make  the 
language  employed  so  hard  to  understand  that  there 
is  no  mental  energy  left  for  mastery  of  the  thing 
wanted,  the  thought? 

The  purpose  of  reading  pedagogical  literature  has 
not  so  directly  to  do  with  the  school  work  as  to  pro- 
mote the  general  professional  growth  of  the  teacher. 
Problems  of  education  are  considered  and  the  reader 
is  not  so  much  concerned  with  such  questions  as, 
"What  am  I  to  do  with  my  classes  tomorrow?", 
"How  shall  I  correct  this  or  that  evil?",  "How  shall 
I  get  my  pupils  ready  for  promotion?",  etc.  Books 
on  pedagogy  set  the  student  to  thinking  upon  such 
broad  matters  as  a  properly  balanced  and  harmo- 
nized course  of  study,  the  preparation  of  the  pupils 
for  life's  work,  their  moral  as  well  as  intellectual  up- 
building, the  adjustment  of  the  work  to  suit  the 
individual,  the  best  method  of  presenting  each  subject, 
the  formation  of  good  habits,  how  to  arouse  interest  — 


46  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

in  a  word,  the  best  means  of  stimulating  educational 
purpose.  Therefore  no  teacher  can  afford  to  ignore 
this  means  of  growth. 

(c).  General  literature.  —  There  is  a  third  kind  of 
reading  that  the  teacher  must  pursue  in  order  to  take 
a  broad  and  intelligent  view  of  life,  and  that  is  the 
field  of  general  literature.  The  tendency  of  teaching 
is  to  narrow  one's  view  of  life  because  the  teacher  is 
constantly  appealing  to  those  below  her  in  knowledge. 
To  counteract  this  influence  the  schoolroom  habit  of 
thought  should  be  dismissed  when  out  of  school, 
association  with  people  of  other  interests  sought,  and 
a  taste  for  general  literature  cultivated.  This  will  not 
only  be  a  source  of  pleasure  and  profit  to  the  teacher, 
but  it  will  also  show  itself  in  the  enlarged  influence 
which  the  possession  of  such  general  culture  will  enable 
the  teacher  to  exert  upon  the  pupils.  For  every  teacher 
should  possess  resources  far  beyond  the  stated  require- 
ments of  the  curriculum.  The  right  kind  of  reading 
in  the  field  of  history,  biography,  and  general  litera- 
ture will  furnish  such  culture.  It  will  counteract 
the  tendency  to  pedantry  often  manifested  in  school 
teachers,  and  furnish  a  never  ending  source  of  satis- 
faction and  profit  to  the  teacher. 

II.    TEACHERS'  MEETINGS 

(a) .  Faculty  meetings.  —  There  is  a  variety  of  teach- 
ers' meetings  that  should  stimulate  growth.  The 
first  to  mention  is  that  of  the  teachers  of  a  faculty  or 
school.  In  these  meetings  the  wise  principal  will  not 
only  direct  the  activities  of  his  school,  keeping  in  touch 
with  the  work  of  all  his  teachers,  but  he  will  also 


THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  TEACHER  47 

lead  them  into  higher  planes  of  educational  work.  Of 
course  questions  of  discipline  will  be  discussed,  the 
progress  of  the  classes  as  well  as  individual  pupils 
will  be  noted,  the  work  kept  in  harmony  and  often 
matters  connected  with  general  direction  of  the  school 
considered.  But  besides  this,  there  should  be  work 
outlined  that  looks  to  the  improvement  of  the  teachers. 
The  nature  of  this  work  will  depend  upon  the  character 
of  the  school  system,  the  number  of  teachers,  and  the 
training  which  the  teachers  have  already  had.  In  gen- 
eral, it  should  stimulate  growth  in  educational  matters 
that  have  no  direct  bearing  upon  the  daily  work.  It 
should  take  the  teachers  into  fields  that  will  broaden 
and  strengthen  their  general  conception  of  the  prob- 
lems of  education.  This  can  be  done  by  assigning  some 
part  of  a  book  for  study  and  discussion,  by  calling  for 
reports  by  individuals  upon  various  themes,  by  essays, 
debates,  etc.  Such  work  can  be  made  most  profitable 
and  it  will  react  upon  the  schools  and  make  them 
more  efficient. 

(b) .  Teachers'  associations.  —  We  have  been  consider- 
ing in  the  foregoing  the  growth  of  the  teacher  as 
fostered  by  local  meetings.  General  teachers'  associa- 
tions have  other  ends  in  view.  They  bring  together 
the  teachers  of  different  systems,  'thereby  affording 
an  opportunity  to  compare  work,  to  study  general 
educational  problems,  and  to  gain  inspiration  from 
one  another.  In  these  meetings  since  the  teachers 
make  out  their  own  programs,  they  are  therefore  able 
to  discuss  matters  of  deepest  interest  to  them,  to  direct 
the  policy,  and  often  to  conduct  the  exercises  them- 
selves. 


48  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

The  most  helpful  associations  are  those  of  the  latter 
kind,  that  is,  those  in  which  the  teachers  themselves 
are  on  the  program  and  conduct  the  exercises  without 
calling  upon  outside  speakers.  If  the  membership  is 
not  too  large  so  much  the  better,  for  there  will  be 
greater  freedom  in  discussion  and  more  frequent  op- 
portunity to  take  part.  I  will  illustrate  my  thought 
by  describing  an  actual  meeting  that  I  attended.  It 
was  a  county  meeting  and  there  were  about  fifty 
members  present.  The  county  superintendent  during 
his  visits  in  various  parts  of  his  district  had  noted 
work  that  was  especially  suggestive  and  advanced, 
and  had  invited  these  teachers  to  bring  their  work  be- 
fore the  association.  One  teacher  with  very  meager 
outfit  had  produced  some  very  excellent  specimens 
of  clay  modeling,  which  she  exhibited  explaining  how 
the  work  was  done.  Another  had  been  very  successful 
in  curing  tardiness  and  irregularity  and  her  scheme 
was  described.  Another  explained  how  she  had  in- 
terested parents  in  the  school.  Successful  methods  of 
teaching  different  subjects  were  presented.  All  these 
exercises  were  discussed  by  the  members,  questions 
were  asked,  criticisms  freely  offered,  and  the  interest 
was  general.  It  was  a  splendid  meeting  because  every 
one  present  got  something  out  of  it.  There  was 
growth,  educational,  professional  growth;  and  that  was 
chiefly  because  the  teachers  did  something  themselves. 
They  were  " learning  to  do  by  doing";  they  were 
most  practically  illustrating  the  principle  of  self- 
activity,  and  when  I  was  called  upon  to  address  them 
I  frankly  told  them  that  they  had  better  leave  me  out 
and  go  on  with  the  work  they  were  doing.  Of  course 


THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  TEACHER          49 

in  great  state  and  national  associations  this  plan 
cannot  be  carried  out.  They  can  only  discuss  the 
general  problems  of  education.  Therefore  they  cannot 
be  such  a  means  of  individual  growth  to  the  teachers. 
Their  purpose  is  general  and  inspirational  and  they 
exert  a  tremendous  influence  upon  the  educational 
welfare  of  our  community. 

I  would  advise  the  teachers  of  a  township  or  locality 
to  organize  themselves  into  small  groups  for  the  study 
of  their  own  problems.  They  could  take  some  educa- 
tional work  as  the  basis  of  study,  appointing  one  of 
their  number  as  leader,  but  should  not  fail  to  compare 
notes,  to  discuss  schoolroom  questions,  to  present  their 
difficulties,  and  in  a  friendly  way,  to  criticise  one 
another.  This  will  also  take  the  conceit  out  of  a 
teacher.  I  have  already  shown  that  there  is  a  narrow- 
ing tendency  in  our  daily  contact  with  young  children. 
We  build  up  our  theories  and  there  is  no  one  capable 
of  showing  the  fallacies  that  may  exist.  We  are  the 
"  law  and  the  gospel  "  in  the  schoolroom,  but  not  so  in 
the  teachers'  association.  If  our  pedestals  have  not  a 
sound  foundation  there  will  be  some  one  to  knock  out 
the  underpinning  and  let  the  structure  fall.  Better  that 
our  most  precious  idols  be  cast  down  if  they  are  false 
idols,  than  that  they  be  allowed  to  stand  and  continue 
to  deceive  us  and  others.  Nothing  will  do  so  much 
for  the  professional  growth  of  a  teacher,  considering 
the  time  and  money  invested,  as  membership  in  the 
right  kind  of  teachers'  associations. 


50  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

III.     TEACHERS'  INSTITUTES 

Most  states  of  the  Union  provide  at  public  expense 
institutes  for  the  upbuilding  of  teachers,  lasting  from 
one  day  to  several  weeks.  Inasmuch  as  these  are  fur- 
nished free  of  cost  to  the  teacher,  her  salary  being  paid 
while  she  is  in  attendance,  the  least  that  the  teacher 
can  do  is  to  enter  into  the  spirit  of  the  work  and  seek 
to  obtain  the  full  benefit  of  the  enterprise.  Many  of 
these  institutes  are  a  great  means  of  instruction  and 
inspiration.  The  teacher  gets  away  from  the  routine 
of  the  daily  work  of  the  schoolroom  and  is  afforded  an 
opportunity  to  listen  to  advanced  thoughts  on  educa- 
tion presented  by  educational  experts  and  to  enter  into 
the  discussions  of  new  and  important  theories.  Hon- 
esty towards  the  state,  towards  their  pupils  and  pa- 
trons, and  towards  themselves  would  require  an  eager 
and  attentive  attitude  on  the  part  of  teachers. 

The  character  of  the  work  in  teachers'  institutes 
should  be  serious  and  instructive  rather  than  merely 
entertaining.  The  problems  of  education  should  be 
considered,  new  methods  presented,  and  inspirational 
themes  discussed.  To  young  and  inexperienced  teach- 
ers this  is  an  exceptional  means  of  growth.  Nor  need 
the  teacher  of  long  experience  feel  that  the  work  of 
the  institute  is  unworthy  of  his  attention.  There  is 
always  something  worth  while  to  all  concerned  in 
every  meeting  of  this  kind.  If  nothing  else  resulted, 
the  association  with  other  teachers  and  the  contact 
with  those  of  sympathetic  interests  would  make  the 
meeting  of  great  value. 

Doubtless  the  increased  number  of  normal  and  train- 


THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  TEACHER  51 

ing  schools,  the  summer  schools  for  teachers,  the  better 
supervision  of  schools,  and  the  rich  pedagogical  litera- 
ture have  greatly  elevated  the  teaching  profession  and 
therefore  lessened  the  need  and  changed  the  purpose 
of  the  teachers'  institute;  and  yet,  it  still  has  a  place 
in  our  educational  policy.  It  should  bring  to  notice 
the  many  new  problems  of  education;  it  should  suggest, 
inspire,  uplift  and  diffuse  enthusiasm.  It  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  every  September  there  are  one  hundred 
thousand  young  men  and  women  who  begin  teaching, 
most  of  whom  have  had  little  preparation.  The 
teachers'  institute  is  worth  what  it  costs  even  if  we 
take  into  account  only  the  bringing  together  of  teachers 
to  confer,  to  discuss,  and  to  learn  from  one  another. 

IV.     PEDAGOGICAL  COURSES 

Besides  the  normal  schools  and  training  schools  and 
the  teachers'  colleges,  there  are  summer  schools  and 
pedagogical  courses  in  universities  which  offer  abun- 
dant opportunities  to  the  teacher  anxious  to  grow. 
Many  universities  are  offering  Saturday  and  evening 
courses  for  teachers  in  their  neighborhood,  which  may 
ultimately  result  in  a  degree;  thus  it  becomes  possible 
for  teachers  while  earning  their  livelihood  to  continue 
their  education  and  thus  perhaps  satisfy  a-n  earlier  un- 
fulfilled ambition,  namely,  the  acquiring  of  a  college 
degree.  Many  boards  of  education  encourage  their 
teachers  to  take  such  special  courses  by  offering  in- 
creased salaries  and  promotion  to  those  who  avail 
themselves  of  such  opportunity. 

There  is  thus  an  abundance  of  means  for  the  ambi- 


52  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

tious  teacher  to  advance  in  professional  knowledge. 
The  teacher  who  is  wanting  in  such  ambition  will  soon 
fall  to  the  rear.  Greater  demands  are  being  made 
upon  our  schools  every  year  and  these  demands  can 
be  met  only  by  the  advanced  qualifications  of  the 
teaching  force.  The  teacher  who  does  not  grow  will 
soon  be  crowded  out  of  the  profession. 


CHAPTER   IV 
WASTE  IN  EDUCATION 

Waste  an  American  Characteristic. —  This  country 
has  been  noted  for  the  waste  of  its  material  resources. 
There  has  been  waste  in  our  forests,  waste  in  the 
matter  of  municipal  rights,  waste  in  our  water  power, 
waste  of  public  domain,  waste  in  the  manner  of  tilling 
the  soil  and  conserving  its  strength,  waste  in  the 
methods  of  manufacturing,  waste  in  the  manner  of 
transporting  and  marketing  the  products  of  farm  and 
shop,  waste  in  public  life  and  in  private  life.  We  are 
the  most  wasteful  nation  on  earth.  Having  exhausted 
and  dissipated  so  much  of  our  tremendous  natural 
wealth,  we  are  compelled  now  to  meet  other  parts  of 
the  world  on  equal  terms.  Legislators  and  public 
economists  have  at  last  come  to  realize  the  situation 
and  are  seeking  to  conserve  what  remains  and  to 
introduce  economic  reforms.  Many  of  the  European 
peoples  are  gathering  three  or  four  times  the  amount 
of  crops  per  acre  that  we  are  gathering  and  from  land 
that  has  been  tilled  a  thousand  years,  while  we  are 
abandoning  farms  as  "  worn  out  "  before  they  have 
been  tilled  scarcely  a  century.  The  remarkable  trans- 
portation facilities  of  modern  times  on  land  and  sea 
have  brought  the  people  of  all  lands  nearer  together 
and  we  find  ourselves  no  longer  isolated  but  a  world- 


54  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

power  and  obliged  to  compete  with  other  nations  in 
trade,  manufacture,  and  agriculture.  All  along  the 
line  men  are  engaged  in  studying  how  to  eliminate 
waste  in  business,  how  to  economize  in  production, 
how  to  save  the  by-products.  Is  it  not  fitting  that 
educators  should  catch  the  spirit  of  the  times  and  seek 
to  eliminate  educational  waste?  For  there  surely  is 
waste  in  our  educational  practice.  To  know  a  dis- 
ease is  the  first  step  toward  its  cure.  I  shall  en- 
deavor to  point  out  some  features  of  educational 
practice  in  which  there  is  needless  waste. 

1.  Waste  in  the  Selection  of  Material.1  —  Criticism 
of  the  public  school  is  frequent  in  the  press,  on  the 
platform,  in  business  circles,  and  among  parents. 
This  has  always  been  the  case  and  always  will  be. 
The  criticism  is,  however,  not  always  just,  reasonable, 
or  constructive.  How  often  one  hears  a  person  who 
has  reached  mature  years  say  something  like  this, 
"  The  schools  are  not  so  efficient  as  they  were  when  I 
went  to  school";  or  "  They  don't  teach  so  thoroughly 
as  they  used  to  do  when  I  was  a  boy."  Of  course 
there  is  an  element  of  egotism  in  such  remarks  that 
is  rather  amusing.  The  fact  is,  the  children  are  being 
better  taught  than  they  were  in  the  last  generation  or 
in  any  other  generation.  They  know  better  how  to 
read,  write,  and  cipher,  and  they  have  a  better  knowl- 
edge of  the  fundamental  subjects  upon  which  such  stress 
was  laid  in  the  past.  Besides  this  they  are  learning 
many  subjects  that  were  not  thought  of  in  those  times 
which,  however,  for  a  practical  preparation  for  the 

1  See  Chapters  VIII  to  XV  for  a  further  discussion  of  methods. 


WASTE   IN   EDUCATION  55 

present  activities  of  life,  have  become  imperative.  The 
criticism  centers  on  the  teaching  of  the  "  practical 
subjects/'  meaning  the  "  Three  R's."  That  even  these 
are  better  taught  now  than  ever  before  is  capable  of 
abundant  proof.  One  has  only  to  visit  the  schools  to 
find  this  proof.  But  the  celebrated  and  oft-cited  case  of 
the  Springfield,  Mass.,  examinations  abundantly  substan- 
tiates the  statement.  I  may  be  pardoned  for  repeating 
this  historic  evidence.  Some  years  ago  papers  covering 
examinations  in  arithmetic,  spelling,  and  other  subjects 
of  children  in  the  eighth  grade  were  discovered.  The 
date  of  these  examinations  was  1846.  Here  was 
definite  evidence  of  the  work  in  some  of  the  best 
schools  in  the  country  half  a  century  ago.  These 
same  questions  have  recently  been  given  to  pupils  of 
the  same  grade  in  many  schools  in  all  parts  of  the 
land,  and  there  has  not  been  a  single  instance  in  which 
the  pupils  of  the  modern  school  have  not  far  surpassed 
those  of  the  earlier  time.  And  these  are  the  very  sub- 
jects for  which  the  old-time  school  chiefly  stood.1 

One  great  trouble  with  the  critics  is  that  they  fail 
to  take  into  account  modern  requirements.  They  for- 
get that  many  things  demanded  of  the  modern  school 
if  needed  at  all  were  taken  care  of  in  the  home,  at 
that  time.  Half  a  century  ago  there  was  little  study 
of  geography  and  not  much  need  of  it.  Indeed,  but 
little  was  known  of  the  geography  of  our  country,  as 

1  One  typical  record  is  as  follows: 

1846  1905 

Spelling 40.6  51.2 

Arithmetic  29.4  54.5 

There  are  many  others,  equally  suggestive  and  comparative. 


56  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

is  shown  by  an  examination  of  the  old  maps,  especially 
those  of  our  great  West.  A  vast  territory,  now  com- 
prising several  states  and  cut  up  into  millions  of  fertile 
farms  yielding  immense  crops  of  cereals,  which  make 
our  country  famous  and  which  bring  untold  wealth, 
was  known  as  "  The  Great  American  Desert/'  How- 
ever little  a  knowledge  of  geography  might  have  been 
necessary  in  those  times,  it  certainly  is  absolutely 
essential  now  for  every  intelligent  person,  not  only  for 
purposes  of  travel,  but  also  for  an  enlightened  com- 
prehension of  the  news  of  the  day.  Moreover,  such 
knowledge  is  invaluable  to  one  engaged  in  trade  or 
transportation,  for  the  price  of  staples  is  affected  by 
weather  conditions  which  affect  the  crops.  The  whole- 
sale grocer  watches  the  weather  reports  during  the 
season  of  planting,  growing,  and  harvesting  of  crops, 
and  is  governed  thereby  in  the  purchase  of  goods. 
But  these  reports  will  avail  him  little  if  he  is  ig- 
norant of  geography  and  does  not  know  the  sources 
of  his  supplies.  Thus  knowledge  of  geography  be- 
comes a  business  asset.  Therefore  it  is  necessary  to 
teach  geography  in  a  practical  way  such  as  was  not 
required  in  the  old  time  school. 

So,  too,  a  knowledge  of  physics  has  become  essen- 
tial. The  wonderful  discoveries  and  inventions  con- 
nected with  electricity  alone  make  necessary  a  great 
deal  of  teaching  for  which  there  was  no  call  half  a 
century  ago.  The  application  of  electricity  in  lighting 
and  heating,  in  power  to  drive  machinery  in  factories 
and  in  locomotives,  and  in  the  various  arts,  opens 
fields  of  practical  study  that  every  intelligent  person 
must  enter.  The  same  is  true  of  chemistry,  a  knowl- 


WASTE   IN   EDUCATION  57 

edge  of  which  in  its  relations  to  foods,  soils,  and  in  the 
manufactures  and  arts  is  absolutely  essential  to  pre- 
pare one  successfully  to  compete  in  life's  activities. 
Ignorance  of  these  matters  seriously  handicaps  a  man 
who  must  meet  competition  in  the  strenuous  life  of 
the  present.  Manual  training  and  domestic  science, 
which  in  former  times  were  taken  care  of  in  the  home, 
in  some  measure  perhaps  sufficient  for  the  times,  must 
now  be  provided  in  the  schools.  The  enlarged  sphere 
of  woman's  activities  necessitates  a  training  for  girls 
such  as  formerly  was  not  needed. 

All  these  things,  and  many  others,  have  added 
great  new  burdens  to  the  requirements  of  the  school. 
None  of  them  can  be  omitted,  and  if  they  were,  the 
grounds  of  criticism  would  be  sounder,  and  they  would 
justly  be  proclaimed  vigorously.  A  preparation  for 
life  under  our  present  civilization  is  a  far  different 
problem  from  that  of  half  a  century  ago,  and  it  would 
be  inexcusable  if  the  schools  did  not  earnestly  seek  to 
meet  it.  That  educators  are  earnestly  seeking  to  meet 
present  conditions,  to  solve  present  problems,  to  pre- 
pare the  children  for  the  life  they  must  live,  cannot 
be  doubted. 

Teachers  appreciate  the  deficiencies  and  weaknesses 
of  the  schools  better  than  other  men  because  they  are 
experts  and  are  ever  in  contact  with  them.  Let  no 
critic  of  our  schools  believe  for  a  moment  that  the 
schoolmaster  hugs  himself  with  the  delusion  that  our 
educational  system  is  perfect  or  that  the  schools  are 
doing  all  that  can  be  done  for  the  child.  We  know 
the  defects  of  our  work  just  as  the  skilled  mechanic 
sees  defects  in  his  workmanship,  the  artist  recognizes 


58  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

imperfections  in  a  painting,  or  a  musician  detects  dis- 
cords. The  greater  the  professional  knowledge,  the 
keener  the  appreciation  of  defects.  Every  one  will 
admit  that  the  teachers  are  better  qualified  than  ever 
before  in  the  history  of  the  world  and  therefore  the 
schools  must  be  better.  For  it  is  forever  true  that 
"  As  the  teacher  is,  so  is  the  school.7'  Admit  that 
the  teachers  are  better  and  it  then  follows  inevitably 
that  the  schools  are  better. 

(a) .  What  should  be  eliminated.  —  Waste  in  the 
choice  of  material  is  not  found  then  in  the  addition 
of  these  new  and  essential  subjects  to  the  curriculum, 
these  so  often  falsely  called  "  Fads  and  frills,"  but 
rather  in  the  retention  of  some  of  the  so-called  "  funda- 
mentals." The  old-time  arithmetic  devoted  a  great 
deal  of  space  to  such  subjects  as,  Duodecimals,  Stock- 
jobbing, Compound  Interest,  Partial  Payments,  Bank- 
ing, Exchange,  Equation  of  Payments,  Arithmetical 
Progression,  Euclidean  Method  for  Highest  Common 
Factor,  Complex  Fractions  with  more  than  one  frac- 
tion in  the  numerator  and  denominator,  impractical 
tables  of  measure,  many  formulas  in  Interest,  etc. 
These  took  an  immense  amount  of  time  and  yet  they 
have  but  little  practical  use  except  in  special  occupa- 
tions. They  do  not  conform  to  modern  business  prac- 
tice and  therefore  are  of  little  value  in  preparing  for 
business  life.  Indeed,  business  men  employ  tables  for 
computing  interest,  and  other  devices  in  computations 
that  secure  more  rapid  and  accurate  results.  All  the 
arithmetic  needed  in  practical  life  can  be  taught  in 
much  less  time  than  is  usually  devoted  to  that  sub- 
ject, thus  leaving  time  to  devote  to  other  work. 


WASTE   IN   EDUCATION  59 

In  like  manner  other  subjects  taught  in  the  schools 
contained  much  that  was  useless.  The  process  of 
elimination  has  already  begun  and  must  continue  until 
the  material  in  any  subject  will  be  such  as  shall  prepare 
the  child  to  compete  intelligently  with  his  fellowmen 
under  present  conditions  of  life.  To  teach  the  child 
to  spell  individual  words  without  reference  to  their 
meaning,  is  waste;  to  have  him  commit  pages  of 
history  and  lists  of  dates  without  considering  the 
relation  of  history  to  life,  is  waste;  to  give  him  rules 
of  grammar  without  employing  them  in  the  construc- 
tion of  sentences,  is  waste;  to  teach  him  definitions, 
and  to  locate  places  in  geography  without  showing 
him  how  they  relate  to  human  life,  is  waste.  And, 
as  already  remarked,  there  is  far  more  waste  in  these 
things  than  there  is  in  the  introduction  of  new  and 
practical  subjects,  not  found  in  the  old  curriculum,  be- 
cause the  latter  are  vital  and  essential. 

(b).  What  the  child  should  know.  —  It  may  be  well, 
in  this  connection,  to  ask  what  may  reasonably  be 
expected  of  the  school,  what  goal  has  the  parent  a 
right  to  expect  his  son  or  daughter  to  reach  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  common  school  course  at  about  four- 
teen years  of  age.  This  is  a  fair  question  and  a  con- 
sideration of  it  may  aid  the  teacher  in  his  own  work 
and  the  parent  to  form  a  just  estimate  of  the  efficiency 
of  the  school.  I  think  a  child  who  has  completed  the 
common  school  course  should  be  able  (i)  to  read  his 
native  language  intelligibly  and  with  understanding; 

(2)  to  express  himself  with  tongue  or  pen  accurately 
and  fluently,  using  good  English  and  correct  spelling; 

(3)  to  know  the  geography  of  our  own  country  thor- 


60  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

oughly,  its  climate,  its  productions,  its  industries,  its 
cities,  its  river  and  mountain  systems,  its  variety  of 
surface,  its  means  of  transportation,  and  its  waters, 
as  well  as  a  general  knowledge  of  the  geography  of 
the  rest  of  the  world;  (4)  to  know  the  history  and  the 
civil  institutions  of  our  own  and  other  countries;  (5) 
to  possess  such  knowledge  of  arithmetic  as  is  necessary 
for  the  ordinary  requirements  of  life;  (6)  to  know  the 
structure  and  functions  of  his  own  body  so  as  to  be 
able  to  conserve  his  health;  (7)  to  have  such  an 
acquaintance  with  natural  science  as  will  enable  him 
to  interpret  the  phenomena  of  every  day  life  as  he 
meets  them;  (8)  to  have  such  aesthetic  training  as  will 
enable  him  to  appreciate  music  and'  art  and  utilize 
whatever  gifts  in  this  direction  he  may  possess;  (9)  his 
mind  should  be  stored  with  many  gems  of  literature, 
and  a  taste  for  and  knowledge  of  the  best  works 
should  have  been  established;  (10)  finally,  he  should  be 
indoctrinated  with  the  spirit  and  forms  of  politeness, 
the  basis  of  which  is  unselfishness,  and  which  is  the 
essence  of  moral  character.  These  things  should  be 
accomplished  in  the  elementary  school,  and  if  it  fails 
of  this  result,  parents  may  well  call  the  school  to 
account.  The  material .  selected  should  be  such  as 
will  aim  to  teach  these  ends,  and  whatever  material 
will  aid  in  this  purpose  cannot  be  denominated  waste. 
2.  Waste  in  the  Employment  of  Incompetent  Teach- 
ers.—  I  have  already  shown  (page  22)  that  a  large 
proportion  of  our  teachers  are  untrained.  Let  us  see 
what  this  really  means  from  an  economic  standpoint. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  money  spent  in 
maintaining  the  school,  the  salaries  of  teachers  and 


WASTE   IN   EDUCATION  6 1 

janitors,  the  furnishing  of  supplies,  the  heating,  light- 
ing, and  up-keep  of  the  plant,  together  with  the 
interest  on  the  investment,  is  after  all,  only  a  small 
part  of  the  cost.  Even  a  child's  time  has  a  com- 
mercial value,  else  there  would  be  no  need  of  child 
labor  laws  to  protect  children  from  the  avarice  of 
parents  and  the  greed  of  employers.  Economists  have 
estimated  that  a  child  of  fourteen  has  a  commercial 
value  of  at  least  three  dollars  a  week.  Placing  a  lower 
value  upon  all  the  children  of  the  elementary  school, 
an  average,  say,  of  two  dollars  a  week,  and  multiplying 
this  by  the  number  of  children  in  a  class  we  have  a 
sum  far  exceeding  all  the  recognized  school  expenses. 
As  a  concrete  illustration,  suppose  a  teacher  to  be 
employed  at  $600  a  year;  estimate  janitor's  service 
for  her  room  together  with  supplies,  repairs,  interest 
account,  etc.,  at  $400;  making  a  total  outlay  of  $1000 
for  the  class.  If  there  are  35  children  in  the  class 
whose  service  is  worth  $2  a  week  each,  or  $70  for  the 
40  weeks  of  the  school  year  their  commercial  value  is 
$2800,  or  nearly  three  times  the  cost  of  running  the 
school.  If  this  reasoning  be  sound,  and  it  seems  to 
me  that  it  is,  how  important  does  it  become  from  a 
purely  commercial  standpoint  that  the  time  of  the 
children  shall  not  be  wasted  by  placing  a  poor  teacher 
over  them.  A  member  of  a  school  board  once  re- 
marked after  a  year's  service  of  an  incompetent 
teacher,  "  The  community  and  the  children  would  have 
been  better  off  had  we  closed  the  school  and  thrown 
the  money  invested  for  it  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean." 
And  he  told  the  truth  in  a  deeper  sense  than  he  realized. 
A  poor  teacher  is  a  poor  investment  from  any  stand- 


62  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

point.  Indeed,  it  is  a  great  waste,  and  the  financial 
loss  is  by  no  means  the  most  serious  loss  even  if  we 
reckon  both  the  actual  outlay  and  the  value  of  the 
children's  time.  The  failure  to  make  reasonable  prog- 
ress and  to  receive  the  best  preparation  for  life,  the 
forming  of  bad  intellectual  and  moral  habits,  the  acqui- 
sition of  wrong  ideals,  the  lack  of  stimulating  and 
uplifting  ambitions  --  these  and  many  other  perils 
are  among  the  possible  results  of  poor  teaching. 
Teaching  in  the  highest  and  best  sense  is  both  a 
science  and  an  art,  as  has  been  shown,  and  no  one 
should  undertake  it  without  a  knowledge  of  both. 
Therefore  boards  of  education  that  employ  unfit 
teachers  because  they  are  cheap  are  recreant  to  their 
trust.  Not  only  are  they  wasting  the  money  of  their 
constituents,  but  worse  still,  they  are  robbing  the 
children  of  their  rightful  opportunity,  and  are  adding 
to  the  number  of  future  inefficient  men  and  women. 

3.  Waste  in  Wrong  Methods.  —  Closely  allied  to 
the  foregoing  is  the  waste  in  methods  of  instruction. 
In  the  early  period  of  the  child's  life,  he  can  be  reached 
only  through  the  senses.  A  knowledge  of  the  great 
lesson  that  Pestalozzi  emphasized,  the  proper  use  of 
objects,  is  essential  to  the  equipment  of  the  primary 
teacher.  And  yet,  right  here,  a  caution  is  necessary. 
Many  young  teachers,  having  learned  that  the  child 
learns  through  concrete  illustration,  conclude  that  the 
more  objects  employed  the  better.  In  teaching  num- 
ber, for  example,  they  bring  in  blocks,  splints,  kernels 
of  corn,  beans,  and  marbles,  etc. ;  thus  overwhelming  the 
children  with  a  great  variety  of  objects.  Such  multi- 
plicity of  objects  serves  to  distract  the  mind  from  the 


WASTE   IN  EDUCATION  63 

purpose  in  view,  which  is  to  teach  number.  A  young 
teacher  made  from  cardboard,  a  beautiful  Swiss  cot- 
tage for  her  class  in  number.  She  was  to  teach  the 
number  six  and  the  cottage  had  six  windows,  each 
with  six  panes  of  glass,  and  various  other  devices 
involving  the  number  six.  The  children  naturally  were 
delighted  with  the  house  and  their  wonder  and  curi- 
osity were  excited.  But  it  was  impossible  for  her  to 
attain  the  end  in  view,  the  teaching  of  the  number 
six,  because  their  minds  were  distracted  by  the  object 
itself,  the  cottage.  Had  the  purpose  of  the  recitation 
been  to  discuss  Swiss  life,  or  to  study  architecture,  or 
to  awaken  the  aesthetic  sense,  her  creation  would  have 
been  entirely  suitable.  But  as  a  means  for  teaching 
the  number  six  it  was  a  failure.  It  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  every  particle  of  interest  devoted  to  the 
object  itself  is  so  much  interest  withdrawn  from  the 
end  sought.  To  use  attractive  objects  in  teaching 
number  dissipates  the  attention.  For  example,  if  a 
teacher  were  to  use  oranges  or  apples,  inevitably  there 
would  be  aroused  in  the  minds  of  the  children  ideas  of 
taste,  smell,  color,  possession,  etc.  Therefore  the  sim- 
plest kinds  of  objects  must  be  employed,  which,  while 
they  furnish  sufficient  concrete  illustration,  do  not 
distract  the  mind  from  the  real  purpose  of  the  lesson. 
The  end  sought  must  never  be  lost  sight  of.  "  What 
was  the  purpose  of  that  lesson?  "  was  asked  of  a 
young  teacher  who  had  just  enthusiastically  held  the 
interest  of  a  class  of  little  children.  In  confusion  she 
replied  that  she  did  not  know,  that  she  really  had  no 
definite  purpose.  Her  work  was  entertainment,  not 
teaching.  The  lesson  should  be  entertaining,  or  at 


64  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

least  interesting,  but  it  must  have  an  end  in  view  or 
there  will  be  no  instruction.  No  mere  method  can  be 
successful  unless  the  teacher  has  from  the  outset  a 
clear  notion  of  what  she  is  seeking.  The  teacher  of 
young  children  must  understand  the  activities  of  the 
child  mind,  must  appeal  to  it  by  objects  and  illustra- 
tions, and  must  know  how  to  choose  wisely  the  kind 
and  number  of  objects,  in  order  to  reach  the  end  she 
clearly  has  in  mind. 

In  later  grades  there  will  be  a  gradual  withdrawal  of 
the  concrete,  for  it  may  well  be  said  that  the  end  of 
education  is  to  gain  abstract  notions.  So  long  as 
illustrative  material  is  needed,  let  it  be  used;  but  do 
not  use  it  when  it  is  no  longer  necessary.  When  the 
child  does  not  need  it  it  is  only  a  hindrance  to  ac- 
quirement. Teachers  often  have  trouble  in  preventing 
children  from  employing  their  fingers  in  counting  or 
adding.  They  forbid  the  practice  and  use  various  de- 
vices to  keep  the  children  from  doing  it.  Such  a 
course  is  absolute  folly,  for  no  child  will  count  on  his 
fingers  if  he  knows  the  results  without  doing  so. 
Drill  until  the  abstract  idea  has  been  gained,  and 
there  will  be  no  need  to  forbid  counting  on  the  fingers. 
The  child  will  take  the  "  short  cut  "  in  his  work  so 
soon  as  he  is  able  to  do  it,  just  as  an  adult  will.  When 
he  knows  instantaneously  that  4  and  3  equal  7  he  will 
never  resort  to  his  fingers.  Therefore  the  effort 
should  be  directed  to  bring  the  pupil  to  a  knowledge 
of  the  abstract.  No  particular  age  or  grade  can  be 
specified  at  which  the  concrete  shall  be  abandoned. 
Concrete  illustration  is  employed  in  the  laboratory 
of  the  higher  institutions,  in  the  biological  and  medical 


WASTE   IN   EDUCATION  65 

clinic,  by  public  speakers  before  adult  audiences.  Let 
it  be  used  so  long  as  it  will  elucidate  and  emphasize 
the  truth  to  be  taught,  and  let  it  be  abandoned  when 
its  purpose  is  mere  entertainment  rather  than  in- 
struction. 

The  method  employed  with  older  children  gradually 
becomes  more  abstract.  When  one  method  fails,  the 
teacher  must  be  versatile  in  the  employment  of  other 
methods  until  the  result  is  attained.  The  presenta- 
tion of  a  subject  by  a  variety  of  methods  tends  to  fix 
the  knowledge  more  thoroughly.  The  teacher  must  be 
grounded  in  theory  and  practice,  must  know  the  child 
mind,  and  be  able  to  adjust  his  teaching  to  each 
peculiar  type  of  mind  and  to  the  stage  of  development 
it  has  reached.  Lack  of  this  means  waste  of  effort  and 
a  want  of  adequate  success  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 

4.  Waste  the  Result  of  Poor  Physical  Conditions. — 
There  are  many  things  belonging  to  the  physical  en- 
vironment of  the  school  that  contribute  to  the  waste 
in  educational  investment.  Uncomfortable  surround- 
ings, such  as  improper  seats,  bad  light,  lack  of  suitable 
equipment,  poor  ventilation,  and  unsanitary  arrange- 
ments, etc.,  prevent  the  children  from  doing  their  best 
work,  and  therefore  cause  a  serious  waste.  These  con- 
ditions often  cause  permanent  injuries  such  as  curvature 
of  the  spine,  ill-health,  round-shoulderedness,  nervous- 
ness, and  sometimes  incipient  tuberculosis.  Medical  in- 
spection is  doing  much  to  remove  and  overcome  these 
evils;  but,  as  yet,  it  can  only  touch  the  surface.  No 
doctor's  prescription  can  counteract  the  evil  effects  of 
an  unsanitary  school  building  with  poor  ventilation 
and  bad  light.  The  remedy  lies  back  of  the  medical 


66  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

inspection,  however  efficient  this  may  be;  it  lies  with 
the  school  board  whose  duty  it  is  to  furnish  proper 
school  facilities,  and  still  back  of  them  it  lies  with  the 
people  who  supply  the  means.  Lately  many  school 
systems  have  employed  a  school  nurse  whose  duty  it 
is  to  carry  out  the  directions  of  the  medical  inspector, 
and  a  school  visitor  who  goes  into  the  homes  and 
seeks  to  instruct  and  interest  parents  in  matters  of 
health.  It  has  been  said  that  "  No  one  has  ever  seen 
a  mind  that  was  not  connected  with  a  body."  Such 
being  the  case,  care  of  the  body  becomes  of  vital  im- 
portance in  caring  for  the  mind. 

It  can  easily  be  shown  that  poor  ventilation  reduces 
vitality,  weakens  the  power  of  attention  and  thus 
materially  diminishes  the  efficiency  of  the  school.  A 
concrete  illustration  will  show  the  material  saving  in 
the  matter  of  ventilation.  A  good  system  of  ventila- 
tion was  installed  in  a  school  building  at  an  expense 
of  $3000.  The  cost  per  annum  of  maintenance  was 
estimated  at  $500.  Allowing  interest  on  the  invest- 
ment to  be  $200;  the  total  cost  per  annum  was  $700. 
In  that  building  600  children  were  taught  at  an 
expense  of  about  $15000  a  year.  Pure  and  wholesome 
air  was  always  found  in  the  rooms  at  all  times  of  the 
day.  If  ten  per  cent  was  added  to  the  efficiency  of 
teachers  and  pupils  because  of  these  healthful  conditions, 
and  surely  that  would  be  a  conservative  estimate,  it 
will  appear  that  the  investment  of  $700  was  yielding 
an  annual  return  of  $1500,  if  one  could  commercialize 
teaching  power.  I  remind  the  reader  that  this  result 
does  not  take  into  account  the  far  greater  question 
of  health  of  both  teachers  and  pupils. 


WASTE   IN   EDUCATION  67 

School  equipment.  —  Many  boards  of  education,  es- 
pecially in  rural  communities,  fail  to  appreciate  the 
need  of  proper  school  equipment.  Who  does  not  know 
of  school  trustees  (farmers,  perhaps)  who  expect  the 
teacher  to  get  along  with  inadequate  facilities  — 
books,  maps,  and  other  necessary  equipment — who 
would  not  be  so  foolish  as  to  send  their  men  irrto  the 
field  to  work  with  poor  tools?  Just  as  the  farm-hand 
or  the  mechanic  can  show  his  efficiency  only  when 
supplied  with  proper  tools,  so  the  teacher  is  handi- 
capped when  not  supplied  with  the  necessary  materials. 
There  is  tremendous  waste  in  these  particulars.  A 
superintendent  presented  to  the  assembled  school 
boards  of  his  county  a  carefully  worked  out  scheme 
whereby  for  $83  seven  sets  of  supplementary  readers 
for  the  eight  grades,  sufficient  for  the  whole  township, 
could  be  purchased.  He  showed  how  these  books  could 
be  passed  around  to  all  the  schools  of  a  township  so 
that  every  child  would  have  an  opportunity  to  read 
from  seven  books  and  thus  get  an  enlarged  vision  of 
the  riches  of  literature  instead  of  going  over  the  same 
material  again  and  again  in  one  book.  And  this  for 
$83  for  a  whole  township!  The  proposition  did  not 
arouse  a  particle  of  interest  in  the  minds  of  those 
trustees.  One  could  not  help  wondering  what  would 
have  been  their  attitude  had  he  presented  a  scheme 
whereby  they  could  increase  the  output  of  their  dairies 
or  get  more  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre.  And  yet, 
this  man  was  presenting  a  plan  by  which  their  children 
would  obtain  the  richest  heritage  of  the  world,  an  ac- 
quaintance with  the  great  thoughts  of  great  men.  It 
goes  without  saying  that  it  is  the  poorest  kind  of  busi- 


68  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

ness  policy  to  build  a  schoolhouse,  hire  a  teacher, 
and  then  fail  to  furnish  the  necessary  tools  to  work 
with. 

There  is  another  field  in  which  the  physical  plays 
an  important  part,  and  that  is  in  the  matter  of  food. 
The  body  cannot  perform  its  proper  functions,  without 
sufficient  nourishment  any  more  than  an  engine  can 
run  without  fuel.  During  a  prolonged  strike  in  the 
coal  mines  in  the  middle  west  it  was  found  that  the 
children  of  the  miners  became  unequal  to  their  former 
intellectual  tasks.  Lack  of  funds  in  the  homes  neces- 
sitated a  restriction  in  diet  and  the  children  came  to 
school  hungry  and  incapacitated  for  vigorous  work. 
How  many  children,  especially  in  our  city  schools, 
come  to  school  every  day  with  empty  stomachs! 
How  can  we  expect  vigorous  work,  either  intellectual 
or  physical?  Recent  investigations  have  proven  that 
many  children  come  to  school  without  breakfast  and 
this  has  led  to  provision  being  made  to  furnish  them 
food,  sometimes  at  public  cost  and  sometimes  by  pri- 
vate philanthropy.  Here  arises  a  serious  problem, 
namely,  the  danger  of  encouraging  pauperism.  If  the 
state  should  supply  food  for  school  children  would  not 
parents  neglect  to  provide  for  their  own  offspring? 
Does  it  not  tend  to  paternalism? 

Let  us  see  how  far  the  state  has  already  gone  in 
this  direction.  First,  the  schools  were  partly  free,  a 
small  tuition  being  charged,  the  balance  being  paid 
from  public  funds.  Next  the  public  school  became 
wholly  free.  Then  followed  free  text-books  and  school 
supplies.  Later  came  free  transportation  to  those 
living  too  far  away  to  walk.  The  question  may  well 


WASTE   IN   EDUCATION  69 

be  raised,  when  will  the  end  be  reached?  Shall  the 
child  be  fed  and  also  clothed  at  public  expense? 
Are  we  not  tending  towards  the  condition  of  Rome 
when  she  began  to  decline?  But  the  ill-fed  child  is 
unable  to  do  efficient  work,  and  the  state  has  under- 
taken to  educate  him.  On  the  one  hand  there  is 
the  child  incapable  of  education  from  want  of 
nourishment,  and  on  the  other  hand  there  is  danger 
of  pauperizing  the  people.  The  child  must  be  fed  if 
he  is  to  learn.  Who  is  to  feed  him?  I  think  this 
should  be  undertaken  chiefly  by  philanthropic  so- 
cieties, the  state  supplementing  their  work  only  when 
necessary.  Aid  received  from  philanthropic  sources  is 
regarded  as  a  favor;  that  received  from  the  state  is 
regarded  as  a  right.  Hence  the  former  has  less  ten- 
dency to  pauperize.  A  commission  should  be  ap- 
pointed whose  duty  it  would  be  to  look  into  the 
merits  of  each  case,  who  should  have  power  to  compel 
parents  to  do  their  duty  whenever  able  to  do  so,  and 
who  should  then  contribute  both  food  and  clothing  to 
all  needy  and  worthy  cases.  This  would  minimize  the 
danger  of  encouraging  unnatural  parents  in  negligence 
of  their  sacred  duty  towards  their  offspring. 

A  writer  interested  in  this  subject  has  well  said, 
"Just  as  it  is  useless  to  try  to  convert  a  hungry 
man,  so  also  it  is  useless  to  try  to  develop  a  child 
who  is  underfed,  who  is  unhealthy,  who  is  in  an  un- 
comfortable atmosphere,  or  who  is  suffering  from  some 
physical  defect.  No  one  knows  how  much  money  is 
being  wasted  in  attempting  to  teach  under  such  con- 
ditions. If  efficiency  means  anything,  it  means  more 
than  effort  put  forth,  it  means  more  than  expended 


70  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

energy,  it  means  predominantly  the  maximum  results 
that  may  be  obtained  with  the  minimum  amount  of 
energy  expended.  Poor  ventilation  means  waste;  poor- 
home  conditions  means  waste;  poorly  adapted  and 
self  conscious-making  clothing  means  waste;  physical 
defects  means  waste  in  capital  letters,  and  uncomfort- 
able school  furniture  means  waste." 

5.  Waste  in  the  Limited  Use  of  the  School  Plant.— 
Hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars  have  been  invested 
in  this  country  in  school  plants.  The  schoolhouse  is 
the  pride  of  the  community  and  nothing  so  stimulates 
settlement  and  investment  in  a  town  as  good  school 
buildings  and  good  schools.  A  wealthy  real  estate 
dealer  bitterly  fought  the  erection  of  a  new  school 
building  in  a  village.  But  so  soon  as  the  building  was 
erected  in  spite  of  his  opposition,  it  was  noted  that 
he  was  shrewd  enough  in  advertising  his  property  to 
proclaim  the  proximity  of  a  fine  school.  He  knew  that 
the  establishment  of  that  school  had  enhanced  the 
value  of  his  property  very  materially.  No  apology 
is  made,  therefore,  for  the  expense  of  good  school 
buildings  provided  they  are  needed,  are  built  economi- 
cally, and  are  suited  to  their  purpose.  But  they  lie 
idle  for  a  large  part  of  the  time.  Occupied  for  less 
than  six  hours  a  day,  and  for  an  average  of  less  than 
half  the  days  of  the  year,  there  is  a  tremendous  waste 
in  the  investment.  What  manufacturing  plant,  what 
store,  what  industry  of  any  sort  could  survive  if  it  fol- 
lowed this  practice?  Many  of  these  enterprises  work 
night  and  day  in  order  that  the  great  investment  in 
the  plant  itself  may  yield  suitable  returns. 

The   school  to   be   a  social  center.  —  There  is  a  grow- 


WASTE    IN   EDUCATION  71 

ing  sentiment  for  making  the  school  a  social  center 
where  not  only  children  may  freely  gather  outside  of 
school  hours  for  instruction  and  amusement,  but  where 
parents  also  may  convene  for  social  and  intellectual  pur- 
poses. Such  a  practice  would  not  only  be  a  great 
boon  to  many  parents,  but  it  would  also  popularize 
the  school  itself.  At  great  expense  philanthropists  are 
erecting  and  supporting  buildings  for  the  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
the  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  and  other  organizations,  with  the 
idea  not  alone  of  awakening  religious  zeal,  but  also 
of  providing  safe  places  for  amusement  and  social 
intercourse.  Why  not  also  utilize  the  public  school 
plant  already  at  hand?  Religious  questions  need  not 
be  introduced  as  people  of  all  forms  of  belief  have  an 
equal  right  to  the  public  school.  But  it  may  be  men- 
tioned that  the  rural  schoolhouse  has  been  used  for 
more  than  a  century  as  a  meeting  house,  where  the 
itinerant  preacher  periodically  proclaimed  the  word 
of  God,  and  is  still  being  so  used. 

Many  educators  have  come  to  believe  that  the 
summer  vcaction  of  nearly  three  months  is  a  serious 
drawback  to  the  educational  progress  of  the  children. 
Even  this  is  often  extended  by  thoughtless  parents 
who  take  their  children  away  to  a  summer  resort  a 
week  or  two  before  the  close  of  school  and  bring  them 
back  several  days  after  school  opens  in  September. 
Vacation  schools  accordingly  are  being  maintained 
ostensibly  to  enable  backward  children  to  make  up 
their  work,  but  it  has  been  found  that  many  parents 
send  their  children  to  these  schools  even  though  they 
are  not  behind  in  their  studies.  After  a  long  vacation 
without  study  the  child  returns  to  school  rusty,  and 


72  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

considerable  time  must  be  spent  to  bring  him  back 
to  the  point  where  he  was  when  school  closed,  thus,  in 
effect,  shortening  the  school  year,  and  again  adding 
another  item  of  waste.  Vacation  schools  are  already 
taking  a  strong  hold  upon  the  community,  and  are 
destined  to  take  a  still  stronger  hold. 

Let  the  public  school  be  open  to  children  and  parents 
outside  of  school  hours  for  purposes  of  amusement  and 
recreation,  for  social  and  intellectual  advancement, 
and  for  anything  that  will  uplift  the  community.  Let 
there  be  books,  and  magazines,  and  newspapers,  and 
games,  and  gymnastic  apparatus,  free  for  the  use  of 
all,  under  a  suitable  direction  supported  by  the  public 
treasury.  Such  use  of  public  money  is  justifiable  and 
is  a  good  investment.  In  Gary,  Ind.,  the  schoolhouses 
are  open  day  and  night  for  seven  days  in  the  week.  In 
a  certain  city  a  sum  of  money  was  appropriated  for  the 
maintenance  of  several  playgrounds  on  school  premises 
during  the  summer.  The  police  judge,  before  whom 
juvenile  criminals  were  brought,  testified  that  in  this 
first  year's  experiment,  the  number  of  juvenile  cases 
that  came  before  him  was  less  than  forty  per  cent  of 
that  of  the  previous  year.  A  good  investment,  surely, 
not  alone  in  the  saving  of  court  and  jail  expenses,  and 
in  saving  of  fines,  but  far  more  in  the  lives  of  the 
boys  themselves.  Let  there  be  organized  social  clubs, 
mothers'  clubs,  and  other  organizations  for  mutual 
good,  with  the  schoolhouse  as  the  place  of  meeting. 
The  school  plant  can  thus  be  utilized  so  as  to  be  a 
public  good  all  the  time  and  not  for  the  limited  time 
it  is  now  used.  It  can  be  made  a  wonderful  help  in 
uplifting  a  community  who  here  can  meet  on  common 


WASTE    IN   EDUCATION  73 

ground.  This,  instead  of  being  isolated  for  school  pur- 
poses a  few  hours  a  day.  And  such  use  of  the  school 
plant  would  greatly  help  the  teacher  in  his  work. 

6.  Other  Causes  of  Waste.  —  I  can  only  allude  to 
some  of  the  other  means  of  waste  in  educational 
practice.  If  the  daily  program  is  not  properly  ar- 
ranged there  may  be  a  serious  waste  of  energy  by 
teachers  and  pupils.  Psychology  and  experience  teach 
us  that  some  subjects  can  be  grasped  and  remem- 
bered better  when  presented  at  certain  times  of  the 
day,  and  that  other  subjects  do  not  lose  by  being 
placed  at  a  less  favorable  period.  Obviously  the 
schedule  of  work  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  cause 
the  least  possible  loss,  taking  all  the  subjects  into 
consideration.  Failure  to  do  this  would  mean  a 
great  waste.  The  teacher  therefore  should  study  the 
arrangement  of  the  daily  program. 

Then  there  is  waste  in  the  presence  of  the  backward 
child.  He  takes  an  unusual  amount  of  the  teacher's 
time,  hinders  and  retards  the  other  pupils,  and  does 
not  make  suitable  progress  himself.  I  shall  leave  a 
further  discussion  of  the  backward  child  to  another 
chapter  (Chapter  V). 

Again  there  is  a  great  waste  in  the  loss  of  children 
from  school.  All  countries  substantially  agree  that 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  state  to  require  the  child  to  be  in 
school  till  he  is  about  fourteen  years  old.  Ayres  has 
shown  that  by  the  time  the  eighth  grade  is  reached, 
one-half  of  the  class  that  started  in  the  first  grade 
have  dropped  out.  Somewhere  along  the  line  they 
have  fallen  by  the  way.  Some  have  dropped  back  into 
lower  classes,  or  remained  unpromoted,  while  many 


74  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

have  left  school.  If  we  include  the  high  school,  he 
shows  that  only  one  in  eighteen  reaches  the  fourth 
year.  There  certainly  is  great  waste  here,  for  analysis 
of  which  I  must  refer  to  the  work  below  cited.1  Ayres 
shows  in  addition  that  in  55  cities  15.4  per  cent  of  the 
pupils  are  repeaters. 

There  is  also  great  waste  in  irregular  attendance. 
This  is  a  loss  not  only  to  the  offenders  themselves, 
but  also  to  the  rest  of  the  class.  No  parent  can  say 
that  keeping  his  child  from  school  is  his  own  business, 
for  every  child  is  entitled  to  an  education  and  that 
right  is  superior  to  any  interest  the  parent  may  have, 
and  the  irregular  attendance  of  the  few  affects  the 
progress  of  the  class  as  a  whole. 

The  cost  of  our  schools  is  increasing  by  leaps  and 
bounds;  teachers,  while  getting  better  salaries,  are  still 
inadequately  paid;  antiquated  and  unsanitary  build- 
ings are  being  replaced  with  modern  and  attractive 
structures;  better  equipment  is  being  supplied,  and  the 
cry  is  ever,  "More  money  for  the  public  schools." 
The  people  are  responding  nobly  until  the  expense  for 
schools  has  become  the  chief  item  of  the  tax  budget. 
It  therefore  behooves  teachers  and  school  boards  to 
remove  every  element  of  waste  in  the  schools,  whether 
found  in  any  of  the  directions  pointed  out  or  in  any 
other  direction.  Dewey  says,  "What  we  want  is  to 
have  the  child  come  to  school  with  a  whole  mind  and 
a  whole  body,  and  leave  school  with  a  fuller  mind 
and  a  healthier  body." 

1  Ayres,  "  Laggards  in  Our  Schools,"  pp.  58  and  59. 


CHAPTER  V 

BACKWARD  AND  DEFECTIVE  CHILDREN 

The  Problem  of  the  Backward  Child.  —  There  is 
scarcely  a  schoolroom  in  the  country  that  is  free  from 
children  who  are  below  grade  from  some  cause  or  other. 
These  children  are  often  a  fertile  source  of  disorder, 
a  menace  to  the  morals  of  the  school,  and  a  cause  of 
anxiety  and  extra  labor  to  the  teacher.  They  may 
be  divided  into  two  general  classes,  namely,  the 
backward  and  the  defective  or  subnormal.  Were  the 
school  freed  from  these  children,  the  work  would  be 
far  more  satisfactory  and  school  more  congenial  and 
successful.  But  the  school  can  never  be  entirely  free 
from  the  first  class,  the  backward,  and  perhaps  not 
from  the  second  class,  the  defectives.  At  least  not 
until  the  people  become  convinced  of  the  need  of 
segregation,  and  not  until  more  adequate  means  are 
provided  for  it.  Public  attention  has  recently  been 
directed  to  the  better  care  of  these  unfortunates  and 
a  serious  study  of  the  best  means  of  dealing  with  them 
is  being  made. 

Greatest  efficiency  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  pre- 
vented by  the  presence  of  delinquent  pupils  who  act 
as  a  drag  upon  the  progress  of  the  class  as  a  whole, 
and  who,  it  has  been  found,  are  the  chief  sources  of 
disorder.  Moreover,  the  morals  of  the  school  are  often 
contaminated  by  the  presence  of  one  or  two  children, 


76  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

who  are  backward  in  their  studies  and  deficient  in 
moral  and  mental  capacity.  Surely  those  parents 
who  have  trained  their  children  in  right  conduct  and 
pure  life  should  not  have  their  work  undermined  in  the 
public  school  by  children  of  vile  habits.  Such  children 
must  be  removed,  not  alone  for  their  own  sakes,  but 
also  for  the  good  of  the  other  children,  so  soon  as 
they  are  found  to  be  a  menace. 

It  has  been  said1  by  experts  in  this  work  that 
"The  problem  of  the  backward  and  dull  child  in 
the  public  school  has  recently  assumed  an  unexpected 
importance.  Formerly  the  idea  was  to  eliminate  him, 
or  by  proper  punishment,  or  educational  procedure 
to  try  to  compel  him  to  take  his  place  with  the  rest. 
He  has  been  the  constant  bane  of  superintendents, 
principals,  and  teachers.  Not  infrequently,  the  school 
board  itself  has  been  called  in  to  settle  the  trouble 
that  he  has  made.  We  now  know  that  he  is  not  to 
be  made  over  into  the  ideal  pupil,  but  that  he  is  to 
be  accepted  and  dealt  with  as  he  is;  that  his  difficulty 
is  largely  a  constitutional  one  and  that  he  constitutes 
a  special  problem  which  can  be  handled  only  by  special 
methods.  While  in  most  cases  he  is  not  capable  of 
being  made  like  other  children,  for  that  very  reason 
he  requires  exceptional  care  and  treatment.  The  im- 
portance of  this  is  shown  by  the  now  demonstrated 
fact  that  unless  cared  for,  he  grows  up  to  become  a 
pauper  or  a  criminal,  a  delinquent  or  dependent.  It 
is  now  believed  that  at  least  one-quarter  of  our  drunk- 
ards, paupers,  criminals,  prostitutes,  and  ne'er-do-wells 

1  "The  Education  of  Backward  and  Mentally  Deficient  Children," 
Prospectus  of  New  York  University  Summer  School,  1913. 


BACKWARD   AND   DEFECTIVE   CHILDREN  77 

were  dull  and  backward  children.  They  were  back- 
ward not  merely  in  the  sense  of  being  slow  and  needing 
to  be  spurred  onward,  but  backward  because  they 
were  of  a  peculiar  mentality  which  could  not  be  trained 
to  do  the  work  that  other  children  did.  In  other 
words,  a  large  percentage  of  our  criminal  classes  are 
distinctly  feeble-minded. 

"The  recognition  of  this  fact  places  a  great  civic  duty 
upon  the  school  authorities.  If  the  school  accepts  the 
problem  and  does  its  duty,  these  children  may,  to  a 
large  extent,  be  saved  from  a  life  of  dependency  and 
crime,  made  reasonably  happy  and  a  little  useful, 
although  they  never  may  be  made  normal. 

"  Furthermore,  the  relief  felt  in  those  classes  of  normal 
children  where  these  defective  children  were  formerly, 
is  so  great  as  to  work  an  actual  revolution  in  the  entire 
situation.  The  grade  teacher,  thus  relieved  of  the 
dull  and  defective  children,  is  able  to  carry  on  her 
work  with  a  satisfaction  not  before  dreamed  of.  Her 
time,  attention  and  energy  are  not  distracted  and 
dissipated  by  these  dullards  and  she  is  able  to  give 
her  best  to  the  normal  children  that  are  left  in  her 
rooms.  The  effect  is  very  great  upon  these  normal 
children  who  are  thus  spared  the  example  of  the  slow 
and  often  apparently  bad  children.  The  problem  of 
truancy  and  incorrigibility  is  largely  solved,  since 
the  defective  is  the  type  of  child  that  makes  up  the 
greater  part  of  the  truants  and  incorrigibles." 

Causes  of  Backwardness:  Classification.  —  Backward 
children  are  not  necessarily  defective.  There  are  many 
causes  of  backwardness,  such  as,  absence  from  school, 
adenoid  growths,  enlarged  tonsils,  defective  eyesight 


78  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

or  hearing,  insufficient  nourishment,  late  entrance  to 
school,  ignorance  of  the  English  language,  too  many 
demands  upon  them  by  their  parents,  etc.  No  careful 
study  of  these  causes  has  been  made  until  recent  years. 
Valuable  light  has  been  thrown  upon  this  subject  by 
an  investigation  under  the  auspices  of  the  Russell 
Sage  Foundation  by  Mr.  Ayres.1  He  has  shown2  that 
in  33  cities  the  percent  of  retardation  varies  from  7.5 
to  75.8  percent,  and  he  thinks  that  approximately 
one-third  of  the  children  in  our  city  schools  are  above 
the  normal  ages  of  their  grades. 

Nor  has  there  been  made  any  systematic  attempt 
to  provide  for  these  backward  children  until  recently. 
The  state  of  New  Jersey  has  taken  the  lead  in  this 
work  by  passing  a  law  (in  1911)  requiring  an  investi- 
gation of  the  number  of  backward  children  in  all  the 
schools  of  the  state,  and  providing  for  the  establish- 
ment of  special  classes  for  their  instruction.  In  view 
of  the  pioneer  work  in  this  important  field  a  full  presen- 
tation of  the  plan  may  aid  others.  The  Department 
of  Public  Instruction  of  New  Jersey  in  a  pamphlet 
on  "The  Treatment  of  Subnormal  Children/'  has 
offered  some  important  suggestions.  It  proposes  that 
all  retarded  children  shall  be  grouped  as  follows: 

CLASS  A.  Miscellaneous.  —  This  class  includes  (i). 
Foreign-born  children  unfamiliar  with  the  English 
language.  These  should  be  arranged  in  classes  of  not 
over  25  pupils  and  an  elastic  and  liberal  scheme  of 
promotion  should  be  provided:  (2).  Children  who  en- 
tered school  late  or  have  been  irregular  in  attendance. 

1  "Laggards  in  Our  Schools,"  by  Leonard  P.  Ayres. 

2  Ibid.,  page  45. 


BACKWARD    AND   DEFECTIVE    CHILDREN  79 

These  should  be  treated  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 
foregoing:  (3).  Physical  defectives  who  are  not  neces- 
sarily mentally  subnormal.  They  may  have  defective 
eyes,  ears,  vocal  organs,  or  enlarged  adenoids  and 
tonsils.  This  class  should  have  special  medical  treat- 
ment with  a  view  to  the  removal  of  the  difficulty.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  no  stigma  may  be  attached  to  these 
children  who  are  by  no  means  mentally  subnormal,  but 
unfortunate  rather. 

CLASS  B.  Incorrigibles.  —  The  presence  of  these  pupils 
is  a  menace  to  the  good  order  and  to  the  morals  of 
the  school.  These  are  to  be  removed  to  a  special 
school  where  the  course  of  study  is  limited  to  their 
needs,  emphasis  being  laid  on  training  the  manual 
activities.  Experience  has  taught  that  such  children 
very  generally  abandon  their  vicious  practices  when 
set  at  work  with  their  hands.  It  has  also  been  found 
that  insubordinate  children,  when  taken  from  the 
regular  classes  and  placed  in  a  group  by  themselves 
under  sturdy,  strong,  and  wise  teachers,  cease  to  be 
insubordinate.  Usually  such  boys  love  to  "show  off" 
and  astonish  other  children  by  their  boldness  and  wick- 
edness, and  when  segregated  with  others  of  like 
tendencies,  they  no  longer  have  a  motive  to  be  bad  and 
their  occupation  is  gone.  After  all,  the  secret  of  the 
government  of  a  school  lies  in  the  power  to  keep  all 
the  children  happily  interested.  Many  of  these  chil- 
dren have  found  nothing  in  the  regular  school  work 
to  interest  them,  and  they  have  broken  loose  from 
orderly  restraint. 

Manual  and  industrial  arts  appeal  to  them,  and 
when  they  are  given  an  opportunity  to  learn  these 


8o  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

things,  their  viciousness  disappears  and  they  may 
be  trained  to  become  useful  citizens.  The  New  Jersey 
laws  permit  any  board  of  education  to  provide  special 
rooms  or  establish  separate  schools  for  the  instruction 
of  this  class  of  children.  Their  removal  from  the 
regular  classes,  where  they  are  misfits,  where  they  gain 
little  themselves,  where  they  prevent  other  children 
from  doing  their  best,  and  where  they  are  a  constant 
menace  to  the  morals  of  the  school,  eliminates  a  serious 
hindrance  to  the  work  of  the  teacher.  It  is  not  the 
intent  of  the  law  that  these  schools  should  carry  the 
stigma  of  a  reform  school  or  juvenile  criminal  institu- 
tion, which  may  cling  to  a  person  for  life;  it  is  an 
attempt  to  reach  peculiar  cases  in  a  manner  suited  to 
their  peculiarities  and  thus  save  them  to  society. 

CLASS  c.  The  Mentally  Subnormal.  —  Unlike  the  first 
two  classes,  Class  C  includes  those  who  are  below 
normal  mentality.  While  the  number  of  this  class  is 
relatively  small,  still,  they  are  to  be  found  in  every 
school  and  nearly  every  classroom.  They  are  a  drag 
upon  the  progress  of  the  class  and  add  greatly  to  the 
problem  of  discipline.  Experts  estimate  that  nearly 
two  per  cent  of  the  school  children  belong  to  this  class. 
They  also  believe  that  most  of  the  incorrigibles  are 
also  subnormal  in  mentality.  The  teacher  is  generally 
uncertain  regarding  this  class,  not  being  able  to  de- 
termine whether  a  backward  child  is  dull,  slow, 
physically  unfit,  lazy,  or  whether  it  is  mentally  de- 
ficient. Every  teacher  hesitates  to  pronounce  a  child 
feeble-minded,  both  on  account  of  the  child  itself  and 
on  account  of  its  friends.  Therefore  in  doubtful 
cases  expert  opinion  should  be  called. 


BACKWARD   AND   DEFECTIVE   CHILDREN  8 1 

External  evidences  of  feebk-mindedness.  —  If  an  ex- 
pert is  not  available  the  following  description  of 
mentally  subnormal  children  by  experts  who  have 
become  famous  will  aid  the  teacher.1  "  Mentally 
subnormal  children  in  the  public  schools  exhibit  certain 
common  characteristics.  The  essential  evidence  of 
mental  limitation  is  that  the  child  is  persistently 
unable  to  profit  by  the  ordinary  methods  of  instruc- 
tion, as  shown  by  lack  of  progress  or  failure  of  pro- 
motion through  lack  of  capacity."  In  order  to  aid 
the  teacher  who  lacks  expert  knowledge  of  this  subject, 
and  yet  who  must  meet  the  situation  in  her  own 
classroom,  a  summary  of  the  suggestions  made  as  to 
the  characteristics  of  feeble-minded  children  in  the 
pamphlet  referred  to  may  be  of  value. 

The  characteristics  by  which  these  children  may  be 
identified  are  as  follows:  (i)  They  do  not  possess  and 
are  unable  to  develop  an  extended  vocabulary.  (2) 
They  lack  the  power  of  voluntary  and  continued  at- 
tention. (3)  They  are  easily  fatigued  and  soon  lose 
interest.  (4)  They  are  backward  in  such  school  work 
as  requires  judgment  or  reasoning,  though  they  may 
excel  in  memory  work.  (5)  They  choose  for  their 
companions  children  younger  than  themselves.  (6) 
They  have  weak  will-power  and  are  therefore  easily 
led  by  their  playmates,  though  they  are  often  stubborn 
and  subject  to  fits  of  bad  temper.  (7)  Very  often 
feeble-minded  children  can  be  picked  out  because 

1  See  "  The  Treatment  of  Subnormal  Children,"  a  pamphlet  issued  by 
the  New  Jersey  Department  of  Public  Instruction.  The  description 
given  is  made  by  Supt.  Johnstone  and  Dr.  Goddard  of  the  Vineland  Train- 
ing School. 


82  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

of  some  physical  peculiarity;  this  is  shown  by  the 
slouching  gait,  the  open  mouth  and  drooping  jaw,  the 
inexpressive  eyes,  which  are  close  together,  the  retract- 
ing forehead,  the  small  chin,  the  vacant  stare,  and  the 
foolish  grin. 

State  Aid  for  Special  Classes.  —  As  a  result  of  the 
New  Jersey  law  much  light  has  been  thrown  upon  this 
subject  and  many  school  boards  have  established  special 
classes  for  each  of  the  three  grades  of  children  speci- 
fied so  that  many  of  them  are  segregated  from  the 
regular  pupils.  The  law  provides  a  state  appropria- 
tion of  $500  for  each  teacher  employed  for  special 
classes,  thus  encouraging  and  aiding  the  local  board 
to  make  the  provision.  Such  special  classes  are  lim- 
ited to  from  ten  to  fifteen  pupils  and  teachers  of  pe- 
culiar fitness  and  preparation  are  sought.  This  has 
caused  a  demand  for  specially  trained  teachers  which 
has  been  very  difficult  to  fill. 

The  Vineland  Summer  School.  —  The  school  for 
feeble-minded  at  Vineland  has  again  taken  the  lead 
by  founding  and  maintaining  until  recently  a  summer 
school  for  the  training  of  teachers  to  meet  this  demand, 
an  example  that  has  been  followed  elsewhere  and  is 
destined  to  receive  a  much  greater  response  as  public 
conscience  awakens  to  the  importance  of  the  move- 
ment. Realizing  the  peculiar  qualifications,  natural 
and  acquired,  of  this  class  of  teachers,  school  boards 
are  paying  the  expense  of  attending  a  special  school 
and  are  offering  increased  salaries  to  young  persons 
willing  to  devote  themselves  to  this  work.  And  these 
boards  are  the  more  willing  to  meet  these  conditions 
as  they  appreciate  that  the  regular  class  work,  as 


BACKWARD   AND   DEFECTIVE   CHILDREN  83 

already  seen,  is  unsuited  to  these  unfortunate  children, 
doing  them  little  good,  and  perhaps  harm,  while  the 
normal  children  are  hindered  and  retarded  by  the  pres- 
ence of  the  others.  By  such  elimination  the  normal 
children  may  be  afforded  an  opportunity  for  the  em- 
ployment of  their  full  powers,  while  the  sub-normal 
may  be  given  the  kind  and  amount  of  work  suited 
to  their  mental  and  physical  condition. 

The  Kind  of  Teacher  Required  for  each  Class.  —  It 
may  be  profitable  to  consider  the  qualifications  that 
are  desirable  in  teachers  for  each  of  these  classes  of 
children  respectively.  This  may  aid  the  teacher  in 
making  a  decision  with  reference  to  engaging  in  this 
important  work.  For  peculiar  qualifications  are  neces- 
sary, and  the  teacher  who  lacks  patience  to  deal  with 
these  unfortunates,  who  is  wanting  in  sympathy  for 
their  weaknesses,  who  is  unable  to  adapt  herself  to 
peculiar  and  individual  cases,  who  does  not  possess  a 
broad  and  humane  understanding  of  the  sad  limita- 
tions of  these  children,  should  not  undertake  this  work. 

For  the  first  class,  those  who  are  backward  because 
of  circumstances  such  as  a  lack  of  knowledge  of  the 
English  tongue,  irregularity  in  attendance,  physical 
defect,  etc.,  but  who  are  mentally  normal,  the  teacher 
should  be  mature  and  experienced,  sympathetic  in 
nature,  and  capable  of  discovering  and  meeting  the 
difficulties  of  such  children.  For  the  second  class, 
the  incorrigibles,  who  must  be  removed  to  special 
schools,  teachers  should  be  physically  strong  and  of 
vigorous  personality.  It  has  been  found  that  boys 
belonging  to  this  class  are  usually  best  reached  through 
manual  and  industrial  activities,  therefore  the  teacher 


84  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

should  be  equipped  in  these  special  fields.  Manliness, 
firmness  of  character,  and  a  complete  understanding 
of  the  boy  nature  are  absolutely  essential. 

For  the  third  class,  the  mentally  deficient,  State 
Commissioner  Kendall  says,  "It  is  desirable  that  she 
(the  teacher)  be  a  normal  graduate,  but  this  is  not 
necessary  if  she  has  had  some  intelligent  and  success- 
ful experience.  She  will  need  a  happy  and  optimistic 
temperament,  and  the  great  patience  that  comes  from 
a  large  sympathy  with  slow  and  uncertain  children. 
She  should  have  an  intellectual  and  social  interest  in 
the  problem  of  the  subnormal  child.  The  teacher  for 
this  class  should  be  able  to  give  instruction  in  manual 
training.  There  should,  however,  be  added  to  the 
qualifications  of  temperament,  character,  and  experi- 
ence, the  special  training  of  at  least  a  six  weeks' 
summer  study  of  this  class  of  children  at  Vineland  or 
its  equivalent.  This  minimum  amount  of  study  should 
be  increased  at  intervals  of  not  longer  than  three 
years,  by  other  special  courses  of  study/7  We  have 
seen  that  many  boards  of  education  show  their  appre- 
ciation of  these  suggestions  by  holding  out  the  induce- 
ment of  larger  salaries  and  by  special  allowance  for 
the  expense  of  attending  such  a  summer  training  school. 

The  purpose  here  is  not  to  indicate  the  methods  to 
be  employed  in  training  either  of  these  classes  of 
backward  children.  That  must  be  left  to  experts 
specially  prepared  to  deal  with  such  children  in  schools 
devoted  to  that  work.  I  have  endeavored  to  show 
how  the  regular  class  teacher  may  discover  these  chil- 
dren and  determine  to  which  class  they  belong.  Hav- 
ing reached  this  conclusion,  the  teacher  will  be  able 


BACKWARD   AND   DEFECTIVE   CHILDREN  85 

more  intelligently  to  decide  what  can  be  done  with 
them.  Clearly,  the  last  class,  at  least,  should  be  segre- 
gated. Dr.  Goddard  has  shown  beyond  question  that 
feeble-minded  persons  are  a  danger  to  society,  not  alone 
because  of  their  criminal  tendency,  but  because  their 
progeny  are  likely  to  be  feeble-minded,  thus  forever 
perpetuating  the  peril.  He  has  shown  also  that  the 
feeble-minded  are  easily  led  and  therefore  readily 
become  instruments  of  crime  to  those  more  intelligent 
and  more  vicious,  that  they  possess  little  moral  sense, 
and  that  through  weakness  of  intellect  they  are  un- 
able to  take  care  of  themselves.  Hence  they  should 
not  be  at  large,  either  in  the  school  or  out  of  it,  but 
should  be  sent  to  institutions  where  they  will  no  longer 
be  a  peril  to  society.  And  this  segregation  should  be 
carried  out  at  least  so  soon  as  they  reach  the  adolescent 
period  when  they  are  the  greatest  danger.  The  child 
that  is  congenitally  feeble-minded  can  never  become 
normal,  and  the  only  way  to  lessen  the  number  of 
this  unfortunate  class  is  to  prevent  their  propagation. 

New  Jersey  is  experimenting  with  a  system  of  coloni- 
zation of  this  class  of  persons  upon  the  waste  lands  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  state.  The  design  is  to  protect 
them  and  society  as  well,  make  them  happier  than  they 
could  be  at  large,  and,  at  the  same  time,  utilize  them  for 
their  own  maintenance  so  far  as  their  capacity  permits. 
Thus  may  be  solved  the  problem  of  expense  involved  in 
segregation. 

The  other  two  classes  will  have  to  be  provided  for 
largely  in  the  regular  schools,  as  it  is  impossible  to 
provide  separate  institutions  for  them,  however  much 
this  may  be  desired.  If  the  teacher  understands  the 


86  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

class  to  which  the  unusual  child  belongs,  the  first  step 
has  been  gained  and  she  will  be  able  to  deal  with  him 
more  wisely.  If  he  belongs  to  Class  A,  he  must  be 
cared  for  in  the  regular  school,  though  in  special  classes. 
Infinite  pains  should  be  taken  to  overcome  his  back- 
wardness. It  often  occurs  that  such  pains  are  amply 
rewarded.  I  have  in  mind  a  German  boy  about  sixteen 
years  old  who  spoke  English  very  brokenly.  The 
other  pupils  were  inclined  to  ridicule  him  whenever  he 
attempted  to  recite.  His  queer  English  amused  them 
greatly.  One  day  he  was  slowly  attempting  to  solve 
an  example  in  arithmetic,  and  when  the  class  began 
to  laugh  he  sat  down  in  confusion.  Determining  to 
put  an  end  to  the  attitude  of  the  class  and  give  the 
boy  a  chance,  I  said  to  the  class,  "What  is  there  to 
laugh  at?  If  there  is  something  to  laugh  at  I  would 
like  to  join  you.'7  The  pupils  who  had  taken  their  cue 
from  a  former  teacher  who  made  sport  of  "Dutchey" 
were  thoroughly  ashamed  of  themselves.  I  had  great 
interest  in  the  boy,  knowing  that  he  was  doing 
chores  for  his  board.  Turning  to  him,  I  said,  "John, 
can  you  do  that  example?"  "I  think  I  can,  sir/'  he 
replied.  "Very  well,  try  again,  and  take  all  the  time 
you  need,"  I  said.  Thus  encouraged,  the  boy  correctly 
solved  the  problem,  and  I  may  add,  John  became  the 
best  student  in  mathematics  in  my  school,  and  those 
who  had  ridiculed  him  were  glad  later  to  seek  his  aid. 
Another  case  may  be  of  interest  in  illustrating  this 
point.  A  boy  about  twelve  years  of^age  entered  school 
and  came  to  me  for  grading.  I  found  that  he  was 
sadly  retarded  in  his  education  owing  to  irregular 
attendance,  his  father  being  something  of  a  nomad, 


BACKWARD   AND   DEFECTIVE   CHILDREN  87 

so  that  the  boy  had  been  in  many  schools,  and  much 
of  the  time  in  none  at  all.  "What  do  you  know,  my 
boy?"  I  asked.  "Well,  sir,  I  don't  know  much  of 
anything/'  he  replied.  Upon  examining  him,  I  found 
that  he  spoke  the  truth.  "In  what  grade  do  you 
think  I  should  place  you?"  I  further  asked.  "Put  me 
in  a  low  grade  of  course,"  was  the  answer.  "You  see 
I  know  nothing."  I  placed  him  where  I  thought  he 
would  get  the  most  good  and  watched  his  case.  In  a 
week  or  two  I  advanced  him  a  grade,  and  still  later 
another  grade  until  finally  he  found  his  place.  He 
became  the  brightest  boy  in  my  school.  Every  teacher 
of  experience  has  had  similar  cases.  To  deal  with 
them  requires  patience,  sympathy,  common  sense,  and 
a  willingness  to  adapt  the  work  to  their  peculiar 
needs. 

The  Work  of  an  Industrial  School.  —  Some  boys  are 
incorrigible  because  the  regular  school  work  fails  to 
appeal  to  them.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  intro- 
duction of  normal  and  industrial  training  into  our 
modern  courses  of  study  is  the  salvation  of  many  boys. 
I  visited  the  Boys'  Industrial  School  at  Newark,  N.  J., 
not  long  since,  and  was  profoundly  impressed  with 
the  enthusiasm  and  interest  apparent.  Many  of  the 
boys  had  been  dismissed  from  other  schools  as  in- 
corrigibles,  truants,  and  misfits.  They  were  engaged 
in  many  forms  of  industrial  work,  such  as  printing, 
mechanical  drawing,  electrical  installation,  wood  and 
iron  work,  etc.  The  boys  were  regular  in  attendance, 
obedient,  thoroughly  tractable,  and  eager  to  learn. 
They  had  found  their  sphere.  A  record  of  those  who 
had  completed  their  courses  showed  that  almost 


88  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

without  exception  they  were  making  good  in  the 
various  positions  they  occupied.  Their  employers 
spoke  in  highest  terms  of  their  efficiency  and  faithful- 
ness. Thus  the  school  is  saving  boys  from  probable 
lives  of  criminals,  and  making  them  useful  citizens. 
It  certainly  is  much  cheaper  for  the  municipality  to 
support  such  schools  and  save  the  boys  than  it  would 
be  to  let  them  become  criminals  and  be  obliged  to 
provide  jails  for  them.  And  instead  of  their  being  a 
dead  loss  to  the  community  they  add  to  its  wealth  and 
prosperity  by  becoming  useful  members  of  society. 

Need  of  Flexible  School  Courses.  —  The  time  is  coming 
when  our  courses  of  study  will  be  made  far  more 
flexible.  Some  children  are  "born  short "  in  certain 
directions,  and  to  compel  them  to  take  the  whole  of  a 
formal  course  of  study  is  martyrdom  to  them  and  to 
their  teachers.  They  are  not  defectives  in  the  common 
acceptance  of  the  term,  they  are  capable  of  becoming 
useful  men  and  women  if  only  their  aptitudes  are 
discovered  and  considered.  One  has  only  to  study  the 
history  of  some  of  the  world's  greatest  men  in  order 
to  verify  this  statement.  Emerson  could  not  learn 
mathematics;  General  Grant  had  no  comprehension  of 
music;  Henry  Ward  Beecher  was  not  a  brilliant  student; 
Peter  Cooper  was  dull  in  his  ordinary  school  studies; 
and  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  James  Watt,  Charles  Darwin, 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  many  others,  who  have  been  the 
world's  greatest  benefactors,  would  have  been  called 
backward  children  had  they  been  classified  by  the 
rigid  requirements  of  a  course  of  study. 

The  course  of  study  should  be  flexible  enough  to 
meet  peculiar  cases,  permitting  the  child  to  omit 


BACKWARD   AND   DEFECTIVE    CHILDREN  89 

without  humiliation  such  things  as  are  found  to  be 
outside  of  his  capacity.  By  no  means  should  a  mere 
whim  on  the  part  of  the  child  be  allowed  to  control, 
nor  should  he  be  excused  from  studying  a  subject 
simply  because  he  does  not  like  it;  it  must  be  clearly 
demonstrated  that  he  is  "born  short "  in  this  particular. 
To  do  things  that  we  do  not  like  to  do,  to  perform 
tasks,  is  sometimes  the  best  of  discipline.  It  gives 
stamina  of  character;  it  makes  one  sturdy  and  self- 
reliant;  it  prepares  one,  undaunted  and  undefeated,  to 
rise  again  when  overtaken  by  disaster  and  begin  the 
fight  anew;  and  it  affords  the  supreme  satisfaction  that 
comes  from  conquering  an  opponent  worthy  of  one's 
steel.  Children  love  to  undertake  hard  tasks.  There- 
fore if  we  are  to  build  up  a  strong,  aggressive,  inde- 
pendent manhood,  we  must  train  our  pupils  not  to 
shrink  from  the  difficult  or  unpleasant.  But  when  it  is 
clearly  demonstrated  that  a  child  is  wanting  in  capacity 
to  learn  a  subject,  the  curriculum  should  be  so  flexible 
that  the  teacher  may  modify  it  to  suit  the  individual 
case. 

Concerning  those  who  at  some  time  in  their  lives 
would  have  been  classed  as  backward  children,  Harden 
very  forcibly  says,  "The  world  has  been  very  kind 
to  many  who  were  once  known  as  dunces  or  block- 
heads, after  they  have  become  very  successful;  but  it 
was  very  cross  to  them  while  they  were  struggling 
through  discouragement  and  misinterpretation."  Every 
teacher  has  such  dull  children  in  her  classes,  and  though 
they  may  not  turn  out  to  be  Edisons  or  Darwins  or 
Emersons,  they  may  become  useful  men.  I  cannot 
better  conclude  this  chapter  than  by  quoting  once 


QO  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

more  from  Harden.  He  says,  "Give  every  boy  and 
every  girl  a  chance  and  reasonable  encouragement, 
and  do  not  condemn  them  because  of  even  a  large 
degree  of  stupidity;  for  many  so-called  good-for- 
nothing  boys,  blockheads,  numskulls,  and  dullards, 
were  only  boys  out  of  their  places,  round  boys  forced 
into  square  holes." 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  MAINTENANCE  OF  ORDER 

The  Necessity  of  Order.  —  Whenever  a  number  of 
persons  are  brought  together  in  a  body  having  a  com- 
mon purpose  and  seeking  a  common  end,  regulations 
to  secure  orderly  action  must  be  accepted.  In  all  our 
relations  in  life  we  are  subjected  to  regulations  and  we 
do  not  consider  that  our  liberties  are  being  infringed 
upon  or  our  legitimate  rights  surrendered.  Thus  if 
we  take  a  train  we  must  conform  to  the  time-table 
and  submit  to  such  rules  as  the  railroad  company  has 
deemed  necessary.  If  we  wish  to  buy  a  ticket  for  a 
public  entertainment,  or  draw  money  from  the  bank 
we  must  take  our  place  in  line  and  wait  our  turn. 
Even  if  we  play  a  game  we  must  follow  the  rules.  No 
one  thinks  of  objecting  to  these  necessary  restrictions. 
So  too,  in  the  class  where  30  or  40  children  are  as- 
sembled, regulations  become  necessary  which  may  not 
be  needed  in  the  home  where  there  are  but  one  or 
two  children.  One  of  the  best  reasons  for  sending  a 
child  to  school,  where  he  comes  into  contact  with  other 
children  and  where  he  must  be  subjected  to  regulations 
analogous  to  those  that  he  must  submit  to  in  later 
life,  is  found  here.  In  the  school  he  learns  the  duties 
of  citizenship,  the  importance  of  yielding  selfish  in- 
terests to  the  needs  of  many,  the  necessity  of  obedience 


92  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

to  law  such  as  he  is  not  likely  to  learn  in  the  home 
under  the  direction  of  his  parents  or  a  tutor. 

A  young  lady  student  was  expelled  from  a  normal 
school  for  violating  an  important  rule.  When  asked 
'  by  a  friend  as  to  the  reason  of  her  expulsion,  she 
replied,  "I  left  the  boarding  hall  one  evening  and  went 
out  walking  with  a  gentleman  friend.  I  have  done 
no  wrong,  I  am  in  the  habit  of  doing  the  same  thing 
at  home."  "But,"  said  her  friend,  "you  were  not 
at  home,  you  were  in  a  school,  whose  regulations  you 
had  promised  to  obey."  "I  do  not  see  the  sense  of 
such  a  rule,"  she  replied.  "There  surely  is  no  harm 
in  walking  out  with  a  decent  young  man.  My  parents 
allow  me  to  do  so  at  home.  I  can  see  no  wrong  in  it." 
"Of  course  there  is  no  harm  in  that  under  proper 
conditions,"  was  the  reply.  "But  this  rule  has  been 
found  necessary  where  so  many  girls  are  involved. 
If  you  may  do  it,  certainly  the  four  hundred  other 
girls  must  have  the  same  right.  Suppose  this  were 
granted  and  a  large  number  of  them  availed  them- 
selves of  the  privilege.  How  would  an  item  in  the 
newspapers  like  this  appeal  to  the  parents  throughout 
the  state?  'Late  last  night  four  hundred  girls  of  the 
state  normal  school  were  seen  on  the  streets  walking 
with  young  men.'  Would  this  add  to  the  good  name 
of  the  school?  Parents  would  withdraw  their  daughters 
from  the  school  at  once."  "I  see  the  force  of  what 
you  say.  I  have  made  a  fool  of  myself,"  was  the  girl's 
answer.  The  whole  trouble  with  this  girl  was  that  she 
failed  to  recognize  the  truth  I  am  trying  to  impress, 
that  where  a  number  of  persons  are  involved  regu- 
lations are  necessary.  No  reasonable  regulation  is 


THE    MAINTENANCE    OF    ORDER  93 

burdensome,  nor  does  it  arouse  antagonism  from  the 
well-disposed,  whether  it  be  a  rule  for  children  in  the 
school  or  a  law  of  the  land  for  adults. 

Obedience  to  authority  is  natural  and  resistance  to 
just  authority  is  unnatural.  The  teacher  should  take 
advantage  of  this  natural  instinct  of  the  child  to 
submit  to  the  wise  direction  and  superior  knowledge 
of  those  in  authority.  An  enthusiastic  young  teacher 
was  led  into  error  by  the  false  teachings  of  an  institute 
lecturer  who  painted  in  bright  colors  a  form  of  school 
discipline  in  which  all  friction  was  to  be  removed  and 
the  school  made  a  paradise  which  he  called  a  "  minia- 
ture republic.7'  Following  the  plan  thus  outlined  the 
young  principal  spoke  as  follows  to  his  pupils  upon 
reopening  school:  "Boys  and  girls,  we  are  going  to 
change  our  whole  scheme  of  government  of  the  school. 
I  am  not  going  to  govern  any  more,  you  are  to  govern 
yourselves.  We  are  all  on  an  absolute  equality  as 
becomes  a  republic.  Whenever  there  is  an  offense 
against  good  order,  we  will  take  up  the  case,  discuss 
it  together,  hear  all  sides,  and  then  take  a  vote  as  to 
what  shall  be  done.  That  vote  shall  be  final  as  we 
are  all  equal  citizens  in  this  school.  You  have  just 
as  good  a  right  to  your  opinion  as  I  have  to  mine  and 
shall  have  equal  authority."  Of  course  the  proposi- 
tion met  with  hearty  approval  and  the  experiment 
was  inaugurated.  For  a  few  days  everything  went 
along  smoothly.  But  after  a  little  while  when  a 
case  came  up  for  trial  the  pupils  began  to  take  partisan 
sides  whenever  their  friends  were  involved.  Nothing 
suited  them  better  than  to  spend  the  time  of  the  school 
in  unfruitful  discussions,  for  thus  they  could  escape 


94  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

their  legitimate  work.  The  teacher  was  helpless  for 
they  were  ready  to  quote,  "You  said  that  we  are  all 
equal,  and  therefore  our  opinion  is  as  good  as  yours." 
The  " miniature  republic"  rapidly  merged  into  anarchy 
and  good  order  disappeared.  After  trying  the  experi- 
ment for  a  few  weeks,  the  teacher  made  another 
speech  in  which  he  said,  "Our  miniature  republic  is 
played  out;  I  am  the  sole  ruler  of  this  school,"  and 
again  there  was  peace  and  good  order.  The  proposi- 
tions of  the  lecturer  were  fallacious  for  the  following 
reasons:  i.  The  pupils  are  not  the  teacher's  equals 
in  knowledge,  age,  experience,  or  authority.  The 
teacher,  by  virtue  of  his  license  to  teach  and  his  ap- 
pointment, alone  is  clothed  with  authority.  2.  The 
pupils  are  wanting  in  stability  and  constancy  of  pur- 
pose essential  to  self-government.  Primitive  peoples 
are  denied  this  right  until  by  long  training  they  are 
prepared  for  it.  3.  The  punishments  meted  out  are 
apt  to  be  unfair.  They  are  too  mild  for  favorites,  too 
severe  for  enemies.  Experience  has  taught  that 
student  councils  are  often  severer  in  their  discipline 
than  the  faculty  would  be,  severer  than  justice  or  the 
necessity  of  the  case  demands.  Hence,  although  the 
teacher  may  delegate  certain  duties  to  pupils  and  allow 
them  some  responsibility,  the  final  word  of  authority 
and  decision  must  rest  with  him. 

And  yet,  I  would  not  imply  from  the  above  dis- 
cussion that  the  pupil  should  have  little  to  do  in  gov- 
erning himself.  Indeed,  the  great  purpose  of  school 
discipline  is  not  merely  to  maintain  order,  however 
necessary  that  may  be,  but  to  train  the  child  to  that 
essential  quality  of  American  citizenship,  the  power 


THE   MAINTENANCE    OF    ORDER  95 

of  self-government.  He  should  gradually  be  led  to 
this  power,  not  only  through  his  studies,  but  also  by 
the  very  methods  of  discipline  employed  in  the  school, 
as  I  shall  attempt  later  to  show. 

What  is  Good  Order?  —  It  is  important  that  there 
should  be  a  right  idea  of  good  order.  I  once  visited 
a  schoolroom  in  which  pandemonium  reigned.  The 
teacher  was  constantly  hammering  his  desk  with  a 
heavy  ruler  in  order  to  make  the  children  be  quiet, 
thereby  creating  disorder  himself.  The  children  natu- 
rally were  inattentive,  mischievous,  and  disorderly. 
I  visited  another  school  that  was  in  charge  of  a  woman 
noted  throughout  that  section  as  "a  good  disciplin- 
arian. "  The  children  sat  remarkably  erect  in  their 
seats,  studied  with  painful  stillness,  and  marched 
with  great  precision  to  the  front.  Moving  pictures 
could  not  have  been  more  exact  or  automatic.  There 
was  not  a  spontaneous  act  in  the  whole  proceeding. 
It  would  have  been  a  relief  if  some  boy  had  yelled, 
" You're  it,"  or  "Sis,  boom,  bah/'  anything  to  break 
the  awful  silence  and  precision.  That  was  no  more 
good  order  than  in  the  former  case,  as  any  intelligent 
superintendent  would  know. 

But  to  answer  the  question,  "What  is  good  order? " 
I  would  say  that  a  school  is  well-ordered  when  every- 
body is  busy  at  his  work,  when  the  pupils  naturally 
and  quietly  go  about  the  room  without  disturbing 
others,  when  they  are  attentive  and  interested  in  their 
duties,  and  when  they  are  cheerfully  obedient  to  the 
necessary  regulations.  It  is  true  that  good  order  some- 
times requires  absolute  quiet,  as  when  the  teacher  is 
speaking  to  them.  Sometimes  pupils  must  sit  erect, 


96  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

but  certainly  not  at  all  times;  sometimes  they  must 
march  like  soldiers,  but  not  in  all  their  movements; 
sometimes  they  may  rest,  but  to  be  long  idle  is  dis- 
orderly. The  teacher  must  learn  to  distinguish  be- 
tween order  and  confusion:  between  the  necessary 
noise  of  proper  occupation  and  that  which  is  dis- 
turbance; between  legitimate  activity  and  that  which 
must  be  restrained;  between  innocent  and  vicious 
mischief.  And  the  teacher  who  has  learned  these 
lessons  will  have  little  trouble  in  discipline,  and  surely 
will  not  be  in  danger  of  nervous  prostration.  She 
will  go  serenely  on  with  her  work,  being  alert  when 
there  is  real  danger,  not  indefinite  in  her  requirements, 
firm  and  rigid  when  there  is  need  of  it,  and  yet,  withal, 
breathing  a  spirit  of  gentleness  and  sympathy  that 
will  surely  win  the  confidence  and  love  of  her  pupils. 
Then  the  latter  will  perform  their  duties  cheerfully 
and  promptly,  and  the  atmosphere  of  the  schoolroom 
will  be  wholesome,  inspiring,  and  natural.  That  is 
good  order  and  the  school  that  has  attained  it  is 
Paradise. 

Practical  Suggestions.  —  In  order  to  aid  the  teacher 
in  securing  these  results,  I  should  like  to  offer  a  few 
practical,  commonplace,  it  may  be,  suggestions. 

i.  Make  as  few  rules  as  possible.  —  Some  rules  will 
be  necessary,  as  we  have  seen.  Make  a  rule  only 
when  it  becomes  necessary  after  proper  warning.  Let 
it  be  clear  and  definite,  and  then  carry  out  its  pro- 
visions firmly  and  impartially.  Do  not  anticipate  an 
evil.  Many  a  teacher  has  suggested  mischief  by  mak- 
ing rules  concerning  matters  that  have  not  yet  come 
up.  In  a  young  ladies7  boarding-school  it  was  found 


THE   MAINTENANCE    OF    ORDER  97 

that  outbreaks  were  likely  to  come  after  the  girls  had 
been  home  for  a  holiday.  Their  mothers  and  aunts 
had  bragged  about  their  boarding-school  escapades, 
and  the  girls  returned  to  school  with  the  ambition 
to  surpass  the  feats  of  wickedness  of  the  past  genera- 
tion; hence  there  was  always  an  increase  of  mischief 
after  a  vacation.  The  unwise  prattle_of  their  elders 
had  suggested  evil. 

2.  Keep  control.  —  I  have  already  suggested  that  the 
teacher  should  acquire  the  habit  of  subconsciously 
distinguishing  between  order  and  confusion.  The 
teacher  that  allows  the  incidents  of  the  schoolroom  to 
disturb  her  equanimity  will  soon  meet  with  a  nervous 
breakdown.  Children  are  full  of  life  and  innocent 
mischief;  few  are  inherently  vicious.  Most  of  the 
mischief  of  children  is  due  to  a  superfluity  of  animal 
life  and  not  to  wicked  intent.  A  wise  teacher  will 
find  means  to  work  off  this  overflowing  vigor.  She 
will  have  the  children  march,  go  through  calisthenic 
exercises,  send  them  into  the  open  air  for  lively  play, 
devise  various  means  to  let  them  work  off  steam. 
One  teacher  sent  a  boy  overflowing  with  animal  life 
to  run  around  a  block.  He  returned  having  worked 
off  his  surplus  energy  and  there  was  no  further  trouble 
with  him.  When  a  teacher  finds  that  the  little  flock 
are  getting  restless,  there  is  no  use  in  trying  to  go 
on  with  the  regular  work.  It  is  time  for  something 
unusual,  something  to  divert  their  minds,  and  the 
resourceful  teacher  will  save  the  day  by  introducing 
unexpected  features.  She  will  save  herself  irritation 
and  probable  discomfiture.  The  teacher  must  always 
be  in  command  of  the  situation.  It  is  well  to  draw 


98  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

in  the  reins  once  in  a  while  merely  for  the  sake  of 
testing  her  control.  So  long  as  the  pupils  readily 
yield  to  necessary  restraint  there  is  safety.  The 
fussy,  nervous  teacher  is  not  calculated  to  preserve 
good  order.  The  children  will  be  affected  by  her 
temperament,  and  confusion  will  surely  result,  while 
the  teacher  herself  will  find  her  school  duties  burden- 
some and  intolerable.  The  schoolroom  should  be  a 
joyous  and  happy  place,  attractive  alike  to  pupils 
and  teacher,  where  every  one  is  mutually  interested. 
Such  a  school  will  not  need  much  governing,  it  will 
largely  govern  itself.  Nor  is  it  a  question  of  the  age 
of  the  pupil.  I  once  witnessed  an  example  of  organized 
mischief  on  the  part  of  six-year  old  children  in  a  Berlin 
school.  The  teacher  was  utterly  helpless  and  confusion 
reigned.  What  those  children  needed  was  some  vig- 
orous and  unusual  exercise,  but  nothing  of  this  kind 
was  specified  in  the  school  regulations,  and  the  teacher 
entirely  lost  control. 

There  will  be  some  noise,  as  there  always  is  when 
people  are  active.  But  noise  is  by  no  means  neces- 
sarily disorder.  As  a  boy  I  used  to.  visit  a  neighbor- 
ing grist-mill.  The  miller  would  fill  his  hopper  with 
grain,  set  the  stones  grinding,  and  then  go  to  sleep. 
When  the  grain  was  run  out  and  the  stones  had  nothing 
to  grind,  my  friend  would  at  once  wake  up.  The  noise 
made  in  grinding  did  not  disturb  him,  because  it  was 
orderly  noise;  but  that  of  the  turning  stones  with 
nothing  to  grind  aroused  him  because  it  was  dis- 
orderly noise.  So  the  teacher  must  learn  subcon- 
sciously to  distinguish  between  the  proper  noise  of 
busy  activity  and  that  which  means  mischief  and 


THE   MAINTENANCE   OF   ORDER  99 

disorder.  The  former  will  not  disturb,  because  it  is 
legitimate;  the  latter  calls  for  action. 

If  the  spirit  that  I  have  tried  to  portray  prevails 
in  the  school,  a  large  part  of  the  irregularity  and 
tardiness  will  disappear,  for  children  will  go  to  school 
because  they  love  it  and  not  because  they  are  sent  or 
because  they  fear  the  truant  officer.  There  are  many 
such  schools  at  present,  and  this  ideal  is  becoming 
more  and  more  prevalent  as  teachers  come  to  under- 
stand their  great  mission.  A  bullying  manner,  harsh 
methods  of  punishment,  and  brutal  practices  are  wholly 
out  of  place  in  the  control  of  children.  Indeed,  they 
defeat  their  purpose  in  that  they  arouse  antagonism 
and  cultivate  stubbornness  in  the  pupils.  Therefore 
the  milder  and  more  humane  methods  of  control  that 
characterize  modern  school  discipline  are  evidences  of  a 
better  understanding  of  the  child  nature  and  signs  of 
genuine  progress. 

The  secret  of  control  lies  in  the  awakened  interest. 
So  long  as  the  pupils  are  engaged  in  some  interesting 
occupation,  they  will  behave  themselves.  This  is 
illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  boys  described  in  the 
Newark  Industrial  School,  and  it  will  always  be 
found  true.  Hence  the  teacher  should  be  furnished 
with  an  abundance  of  material;  there  should  be  not 
only  mere  devices,  but  also  a  broad  educational  basis, 
with  a  fund  of  knowledge  and  experience  upon  which 
to  draw.  There  is  no  stronger  argument  for  a  thor- 
oughly educated  teaching  profession. 

3.  Be  positive  and  firm. —  While  gentle  and  humane 
methods  of  control  are  advocated,  this  does  not  mean 
that  the  teacher  should  lack  firmness  and  decision, 


ioo  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

or  that  she  should  fail  to  exact  strict  obedience  of 
her  pupils.  Such  weakness  would  be  fatal  to  good 
order.  It  may  be  remarked  that  children  respect  and 
love  the  teacher  who  holds  them  to  strict  account, 
rather  than  the  teacher  who  is  weak  and  vacillating 
and  who  seeks  to  win  favor  by  ignoring  their  offenses. 
I  have  already  shown  that  obedience  is  natural,  and 
therefore  failure  to  exact  it  will  surely  bring  dis- 
respect and  want  of  confidence.  The  teacher  must  be 
straightforward  and  positive  in  her  requirements,  and 
must  leave  no  doubt  in  the  minds  of  her  pupils  of  her 
determination  to  be  obeyed.  She  must  be  sure  of 
herself  and  confident  of  her  ability  to  enforce  her 
demands.  Children  are  quick  to  note  the  absence  of 
these  qualities  and  are  sure  to  take  advantage  of  any 
weakness.  The  teacher  should  not  be  rash  in  reaching 
conclusions,  but  when  convinced  as  to  what  is  the 
right  action,  she  should  not  shrink  from  carrying  it 
out. 

It  may  be  that  at  the  first,  considerable  time  must 
be  devoted  to  the  matter  of  discipline  before  the  pupils 
understand  just  what  is  expected  of  them.  Such 
time  is  well  spent  if  the  lesson  is  so  well  learned  that 
later  there  is  little  occasion  for  discipline.  For  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  order  in  the  schoolroom  is 
a  means  to  an  end,  and  that  is  to  make  instruction 
possible. 

Punishments.  —  So  long  as  human  nature  is  what  it  is, 
there  is  no  escape  from  the  employment  of  punishments 
for  offenses  committed.  The  attitude  of  the  teacher 
in  this  matter  should  be  different  from  that  of  the  judge, 
who  deals  largely  with  mature  and  responsible  beings. 


ME   MAINTENANCE    OF   OXD£p_  IOI 

The  judge  must  punish  for  the  sake  of  example  to 
restrain  others  from  committing  a  like  offense,  to 
avenge  the  law,  to  protect  society.  Hence  the  law 
provides  penalties  for  each  offense,  merely  giving  the 
judge  discretionary  power  under  certain  limitations. 
The  school,  on  the  other  hand,  is  dealing  with  little 
people  who  are  largely  irresponsible,  who  do  wrong 
without  forethought,  and  who  seldom  have  a  vicious 
motive.  Because  of  this  no  fixed  penalties  should  be 
attached  to  school  regulations,  so  that  the  teacher  may 
treat  each  case  on  its  individual  merits.  Nor  should 
punishment  of  children  be  administered  as  a  retribu- 
tion or  as  an  example  for  others.  I  wish  to  emphasize 
the  thought  that  the  child  should  be  treated  as  a  child, 
and  therefore  when  punishment  is  necessary,  it  should 
be  inflicted  for  his  particular  offense.  Hence  some 
children  will  receive  a  different  punishment,  and  per- 
haps a  severer  one,  for  a  given  offense  than  others 
might  receive  for  apparently  the  same  offense.  The 
teacher  should  not  reason,  "  Charles  did  this  wrong 
and  I  kept  him  after  school,  and  now  Mary  has  done 
the  same  thing  and  therefore  she  must  remain  after 
school."  There  may  be  mitigating  circumstances  in 
Mary's  case,  and  whatever  was  suitable  for  Charles  in 
order  to  bring  him  to  a  sense  of  his  wrongdoing,  might 
not  be  necessary  for  Mary. 

Is  there  not  danger  of  the  teacher  being  accused  of 
" showing  partiality"?  I  think  not.  It  is  only  when 
the  teacher  shows  favoritism  to  a  child  because  of 
family  or  social  position,  or  for  some  cause  external 
to  the  school,  that  such  charge  is  likely  to  be  made. 
There  need  be  no  fear  of  this  criticism  if  the  teacher 


102  TEACHING:    ITS  AXMS  AND  METHODS 

acts  honestly  and  fearlessly  on  the  merits  of  the  needs 
of  each  child. 

Herbert  Spencer  gives  wise  advice  when  he  says 
that  punishment  should  be  the  sequence  of  the  offense. 
If  the  child  does  not  behave  on  the  playground,  he 
must  not  go  out  with  the  others;  if  he  annoys  others 
in  his  seat,  he  must  be  isolated;  if  he  quarrels  with 
others  on  the  way  home,  he  must  be  detained  till  after 
the  others  are  gone.  The  teacher  will  find  abundant 
ways  to  carry  out  this  principle. 

Again,  the  amount  of  punishment  must  be  consid- 
ered. The  young  teacher  is  prone  to  be  too  severe. 
Her  theory  is,  "He  deserves  so  much  punishment,  and 
it  is  my  duty  to  administer  it."  This  is  a  mistaken 
idea.  "What  punishment  is  necessary  to  bring  him 
to  a  sense  of  his  wrong?"  should  be  the  determining 
gauge.  A  professor  was  annoyed  by  a  student  who 
continually  lounged  in  his  seat.  Now  he  might  have 
been  justified  in  calling  the  young  man  sharply  to 
account,  thus  humiliating  him  before  the  whole  class. 
This  would  undoubtedly  have  aroused  resentment  and 
possible  defiance.  The  teacher,  however,  quietly  asked 
the  young  man  to  stop  after  class,  and  said  to  him: 
"Mr.  G.,  you  are  to  be  a  teacher.  Would  you  allow 
your  pupils  to  lounge  in  their  seats  as  you  do?" 
"Why,  no,  sir,  I  would  not,"  was  the  reply.  "Well, 
now,  I  think  I  do  not  need  to  say  anything  more,  do 
I?"  pursued  the  professor.  "You  will  have  no  further 
trouble  with  me,"  was  the  hearty  response.  The 
evil  was  thus  corrected  and  mutual  good  feeling  main- 
tained. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  here  to  give  devices,  but  rather 


THE   MAINTENANCE    OF    ORDER  103 

to  state  principles,  leaving  it  to  the  teacher  to  find 
the  application  for  each  individual  case.  In  order  to 
have  these  principles  governing  punishment  clearly 
before  the  teacher,  I  shall  repeat  them  in  compact 
form. 

1 .  Let  there  be  no  fixed  penalties  for  school  offenses. 

2.  The  punishment  should  be  the  sequence  of  the  offense. 

3.  The  least  punishment  that  will  secure  the  end  is  the  right 
punishment. 

4.  Punishment  should  be  individual  rather   than  for  the 
purpose  of  furnishing  an  example  to  others. 

With  these  principles  in  mind  the  teacher  should  be 
able  to  select  the  form  of  penalty  necessary  to  meet 
each  particular  offense. 

Kinds  of  Punishment.  —  In  general,  we  may  divide 
punishments  into  two  kinds,  improper  and  proper. 
Among  the  former  may  be  mentioned  scolding,  nagging, 
anything  of  a  cowardly  nature,  those  punishments  that 
are  cruel,  and  those  that  are  humiliating.  The  teacher 
has  no  right  because  of  superior  strength  or  authority  to 
take  advantage  of  the  weakness  of  the  children.  "  Why 
have  I  whipped  you,  my  son?"  asked  a  father  of  his 
boy.  "Because  you  are  the  bigger,"  was  the  reply. 
Whatever  degrades  or  humiliates,  whatever  causes  a 
loss  of  self-respect,  or  awakens  just  resentment,  or  is 
unreasonable  or  cruel,  should  be  absolutely  prohibited. 
Pulling  the  hair  or  ears,  striking  upon  the  head,  or 
any  other  form  of  punishment  that  is  dangerous 
should  never  be  practiced,  even  if  corporal  punishment 
is  not  forbidden.  Indeed,  the  teacher  that  employs 
such  punishments  should  not  only  be  displaced,  but 
should  also  be  made  to  answer  in  a  court  of  justice. 


104  TEACHING:     ITS   AIMS  AND   METHODS 

I  shall  attempt  to  show  what  punishments  are 
proper  as  follows: 

i .  Reproof.  —  This  is  the  most  common  form  of 
punishment,  and  it  is  effective  in  a  large  proportion 
of  school  offenses.  There  are  many  forms  of  reproof, 
such  as  a  look,  an  act,  or  a  direct  word.  A  teacher 
was  placed  in  charge  of  a  class  that  had  become  un- 
ruly and  troublesome.  The  children  came  to  school 
dirty,  were  careless  in  littering  the  floor  and  in  the 
use  of  school  materials,  and  were  generally  disorderly. 
The  teacher  walked  down  the  aisles  examining  hands 
and  faces,  observing  the  condition  of  desks  and  floor, 
and  scrutinizing  the  general  situation.  Not  a  word 
was  said,  but  the  children  fully  understood  the  rebuke 
and  were  thoroughly  ashamed.  Gradually  they  began 
to  pick  up  papers  and  put  their  premises  to  rights. 
Each  day  the  same  silent  scrutiny  was  carried  on  by 
the  teacher,  and  each  day  more  and  more  of  the  chil- 
dren came  to  school  with  clean  faces,  combed  hair, 
and  more  tidy  dress,  until  the  evil  was  wholly  cor- 
rected. A  look  was  the  only  rebuke  administered,  and 
it  was  sufficient. 

If  the  reproving  word  must  be  used,  it  should  never 
be  vindictive  or  sarcastic.  There  is  no  place  for  sar- 
casm with  little  children,  if  ever  it  has  any  place. 
It  blisters  and  hardens  the  child  nature  and  reacts 
upon  the  teacher  herself.  It  makes  the  teacher  sour, 
hard,  unsympathetic,  bitter,  and  such  a  person  has 
no  place  in  the  schoolroom.  Constant  association 
with  children  ought  to  sweeten,  purify,  ennoble,  and 
make  gentle.  When  the  word  of  reproof  must  be 
spoken,  it  should  be  clear  and  decisive,  though  kindly, 


THE    MAINTENANCE    OF    ORDER  105 

so  that  there  will  be  no  mistaking  its  meaning.  Pains 
should  be  taken  to  show  the  pupil  the  nature  and 
gravity  of  his  offense.  Often  a  wrong  is  done  without 
the  child  comprehending  its  seriousness.  Generally 
speaking,  reproof  should  be  administered  privately. 
No  one  likes  to  be  held  up  to  public  obloquy.  Reproof 
before  the  whole  class  is  likely  to  arouse  defiance  on 
the  part  of  the  culprit  and  awaken  the  sympathy  of 
the  class  for  him.  Taken  alone,  he  is  without  the  sup- 
port of  his  comrades,  is  not  humiliated,  and  therefore 
may  be  reached  and  brought  to  acknowledge  his  wrong. 
While  there  are  grave  cases  of  wrongdoing  that  call 
for  public  rebuke,  such  cases  are  rare,  and  the  teacher 
should  always  be  reluctant  to  adopt  such  extreme 
measures. 

2.  Deprivation    of    school    privileges.  —  Every    teacher 
grants    freedom    of    action    to    her    pupils    in    certain 
matters  depending  upon  environment,   age,   and  other 
circumstances.     Among  these  may  be  mentioned  per- 
mission  to   move   freely   about   the   room,   possibly   to 
leave   the  room,   to  get  a  drink,   to   whisper,    to   seek 
assistance,   etc.     Withdrawal   of  any   of  the  privileges 
would  be  a  punishment.     Here  is  afforded  an  excellent 
opportunity    to    carry    out    the    principle    already    dis- 
cussed, namely,  the  punishment  should  be  the  sequence 
of  the  offense. 

3.  Deportment    marks.  —  This    is    often    an    effective 
form  of  punishment  in  that  it  affords  an  opportunity 
periodically    to    call    to    the    attention    of    parents,  in 
terms  that  they  can  appreciate,  facts  as  to  the  child's 
conduct.     If  parents  are  intelligent  and  in  sympathy 
with  the  school,  the  use  of  deportment  marks  is  doubly 


106  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

effective.  Parents  sometimes  make  the  system  even 
more  successful  by  supplementary  punishments.  Some 
teachers  average  the  deportment  marks  with  the 
class  standing,  thus  making  them  a  determining  factor 
in  promotion.  Such  practice  is  at  least  questionable, 
for  the  deportment  of  children  is  often  bad  because 
they  do  not  have  sufficient  suitable  work  to  do.  What 
folly,  then,  to  keep  back  a  child  because  of  his  deport- 
ment, when  if  he  were  placed  in  an  advanced  class, 
where  he  would  be  kept  busy,  his  deportment  would 
probably  be  better. 

4.  Suspension  and  expulsion.  —  I  shall  discuss  these 
together,  as  the  latter  is  merely  the  finality  of  the 
former.  Suspension  is  made  by  the  teacher  and  is 
temporary,  while  expulsion  is  made  by  the  school 
board  and  is  permanent.  Well-behaved  and  decent 
children  should  not  be  required  to  associate  with  those 
that  are  indecent  and  vicious.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
public  school  to  protect  all  the  children  from  all  im- 
moral influences,  and  parents  must  have  confidence 
in  its  ability  to  do  so.  A  bad,  vicious  boy,  addicted 
to  profane  and  vulgar  language,  can  undo  the  work 
of  years  of  patient  and  loving  training  on  the  part  of 
the  home.  In  most  states  the  laws  permit  the  sus- 
pension of  children  who  cannot  be  controlled  in  the 
school.  The  teacher  must  take  advantage  of  that 
right  when  children  are  insubordinate,  incorrigible,  or 
a  danger  to  the  morals  of  the  other  children.  The 
unfortunate  part  of  such  action  is  that  in  many  cases 
it  merely  turns  the  child  upon  the  street  to  become 
even  more  vicious.  Therefore  the  teacher  should  be 
reluctant  to  administer  this  punishment  unless  con- 


THE   MAINTENANCE    OF    ORDER  107 

vinced  that  the  good  of  the  pupils  as  a  whole  makes  it 
necessary.  The  state  compels  school  attendance  on 
the  one  hand,  and  permits  expulsion  on  the  other 
hand.  To  be  consistent  the  state  should  provide 
places  to  which  suspended  pupils  can  be  removed, 
and  not  turn  them  loose  upon  the  streets,  which  to 
many  boys  is  no  punishment. 

A  boy  was  suspended  from  school  for  gross  indecency. 
After  a  few  weeks  his  father  came  before  the  school 
board  and  asked  that  the  boy  be  readmitted.  He 
said,  "My  boy  has  no  mother,  my  housekeeper  can- 
not control  him,-  and  I  must  be  at  business  all  day. 
If  he  does  not  behave,  whip  him,  but  do  not  turn 
him  on  the  street.  That  is  no  punishment  for  him." 
The  boy  was  readmitted  and  within  two  days  com- 
mitted a  like  offense,  only  more  indecent  than  the 
first.  His  teacher  took  him  into  a  room  by  himself 
and  said,  "You  are  looking  for  another  vacation, 
aren't  you?"  "Yes,"  replied  the  boy,  "suspend  me 
if  you  want  to."  The  teacher  took  a  strap  to  him, 
much  to  the  boy's  astonishment.  It  was  most  salutary 
and  effected  a  perfect  cure. 

5.  Corporal  punishment.  —  In  the  old-time  school 
there  was  abundant  use  of  the  rod  and  often  brutality 
was  practiced.  This  led  to  the  enactment  of  laws  in 
many  cities  and  states  prohibiting  corporal  punish- 
ment. There  is  no  doubt  that  school  punishments 
are  more  humane  than  formerly,  and  surely  the  order 
is  better.  One  no  longer  hears  of  the  big  boys  clubbing 
together  to  throw  the  schoolmaster  out  of  the  window. 
This  is  not  owing  altogether  to  the  legal  restrictions 
in  using  the  rod,  for  the  same  result  is  manifest  also 


io8  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

where  there  are  no  restrictions.  Teachers  are  better 
trained,  more  intelligent,  and  therefore  more  liable  to 
command  the  respect  of  pupils.  Besides,  school  au- 
thorities are  giving  better  support  to  the  teachers  in 
matters  of  discipline,  and  public  sentiment  condemns 
rowdyism  in  the  school.  The  increase  in  the  number 
of  women  teachers  also  has  its  effect,  as  boys,  who 
would  have  little  compunction  in  making  trouble  for 
a  man,  are  instinctively  too  chivalrous  to  resist  a 
woman.  The  decrease  in  the  number  of  rural  schools 
has  had  its  effect.  Not  long  ago  from  60  to  80  pupils 
of  all  ages  from  4  to  21  were  crowded  together  in  one 
room  under  one  teacher.  Now  the  older  pupils  are 
sent  to  the  town  school,  and  the  number  of  children 
in  the  rural  communities  has  greatly  diminished.  All 
of  these  things  tend  to  make  discipline  easier,  and  the 
necessity  for  harsh  methods  has  disappeared. 

While  it  is  true  that  such  brutal  practices  have  dis- 
appeared from  the  schools,  every  teacher  knows  that 
corporal  punishment  has  not  disappeared,  even  where 
it  is  forbidden.  It  may  be  well  to  define  what  we 
meant  by  this  term.  I  quote  from  a  former  state 
superintendent  of  public  schools,  who  interprets  its 
meaning  as  follows:  " Corporal  punishment  as  defined 
in  the  school  law  is  as  follows:  Corporal  punishment 
is  any  form  of  punishment  by  means  of  which  physical 
pain  is  inflicted.  It  includes  the  physical  discomfort 
or  weariness  caused  by  any  unusual  and  sustained 
posture,  as  well  as  the  infliction  of  pain  by  the  hand 
or  by  the  use  of  a  whip,  rule,  or  rattan."  Under  this 
interpretation  there  are  few  teachers  who  do  not  resort 
to  some  form  of  corporal  punishment,  Not  long  ago 


THE    MAINTENANCE    OF    ORDER  IOQ 

a  boy  was  sent  to  a  Brooklyn  principal  for  discipline. 
The  principal  took  hold  of  the  boy's  arm,  and  while 
the  boy  was  receiving  a  gentle  lecture  from  his  prin- 
cipal, I  noticed  that  he  winced  with  pain  from  the 
squeezing  his  arm  was  getting,  and  yet,  corporal  pun- 
ishment has  been  prohibited  in  that  city  for  more  than 
a  quarter  of  a  century. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  legal  restrictions  as  to 
corporal  punishment  have  led  to  evasions  of  the  law 
and  to  the  adoption  of  many  forms  of  punishment 
that  are  more  unnatural,  unreasonable,  and  even  less 
humane  than  the  old  type.  Think  of  young  children 
being  subjected  to  bitter  sarcasm,  which  blights  and 
withers,  to  various  forms  of  degradation,  to  violations 
of  their  self-respect,  and  to  real  cruelties.  What 
parent  would  not  prefer  that  his  child  should  be  sub- 
jected to  a  proper  whipping  than  to  such  humiliating 
forms  of  punishment?  This  is  no  advocacy  of  a  return 
to  former  brutal  practices.  I  think  that  the  teacher 
should  be  allowed  the  same  right  that  the  parent 
possesses  under  the  law.  For  surely  the  teacher,  by 
education,  by  experience  in  managing  children,  and 
by  humane  tendency,  is  as  fully  competent  to  meet 
this  responsibility  as  the  great  majority  of  parents 
are. 

While  the  use  of  the  rod  under  rigid  restrictions 
should  be  permitted,  any  teacher  that  cannot  control 
her  school  without  frequent  resort  to  it  had  better 
resign.  Its  use  should  be  exceedingly  rare,  and  only 
for  some  such  reason  as  that  heretofore  mentioned 
(page  107).  For  its  abuse,  I  would  have  the  teacher 
called  to  a  rigid  account.  I  am  thoroughly  convinced 


no  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

that  upon  this  basis  there  would  be  less  corporal 
punishment  in  the  schools  than  at  present;  discipline 
would  be  easier  and  more  natural,  as  well  as  more 
humane;  the  teacher  would  not  be  constantly  com- 
pelled to  evade  a  law  which  it  is  impossible  to  carry 
out  in  spirit;  and  the  children  would  learn  the  lesson 
of  strict  obedience  to  law  which  is  so  sadly  lacking. 
I  am  pleading  for  less  severity,  less  cruelty,  less  false 
practice  in  discipline,  and  more  sympathy,  more  hu- 
manity, more  real  understanding  of  the  child  nature. 

In  conclusion,  school  discipline  should  be  easy  and 
natural,  should  be  kept  in  the  background,  and  should 
aim  to  bring  the  children  to  self-control  and  self- 
direction.  And  this  ideal  finds  its  fullest  expression 
in  that  American  citizenship  which  it  is  the  duty  of 
the  school  to  train. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  ART  OF  QUESTIONING 

THE  method  of  instruction  in  the  elementary  school 
is  largely  that  of  question  and  answer.  Text-books 
were  formerly  almost  wholly  based  upon  that  idea. 
Thus  geography  began  with  the  question,  "What  is 
geography? "  Answer,  "Geography  is  the  description 
of  the  earth's  surf  ace. "  "Of  what  is  the  earth  com- 
posed? "  Answer,  "The  earth  is  composed  of  land  and 
water/'  etc.  This  method  required  no  particular  skill 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  who  merely  read  the  ques- 
tions out  of  the  book,  and  saw  to  it  that  the  answer 
given  agreed  with  the  one  in  the  book.  Mere  ability 
to  read  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  and  ability  to 
memorize  on  the  part  of  the  children  was  all  that  was 
necessary. 

I  was  once  present  at  an  exercise  conducted  by  the 
principal  of  a  normal  school.  He  was  "  hearing "  a 
class  recite  in  civil  government.  From  a  list  of  mem- 
bers of  the  class,  which  he  had  in  a  little  book,  he  called 
upon  a  student  to  stand.  Then  from  a  text-book  he 
read  a  question  which  was  answered  verbatim  from 
the  book.  After  marking  the  result  in  his  book  he 
called  up  another  student,  read  the  next  question, 
got  his  answer,  and  made  a  record  as  before.  The  ex- 
ercise proceeded  on  this  plan  until  the  end.  It  re- 
quired no  pedagogical  skill, —  anyone  that  could  read 


ii2  TEACHING:  ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

could  have  conducted  the  exercise,  —  did  not  provoke  a 
bit  of  discussion,  awakened  no  interest,  and  was 
entirely  devoid  of  educational  stimulus.  There  was 
not  a  particle  of  teaching;  it  was  purely  perfunc- 
tory. It  was  merely  " hearing"  the  lesson.  Think 
of  young  people  going  out  with  their  diploma 
as  qualified  teachers  with  the  deadening  influence 
of  such  an  example  from  the  highest  official  of  their 
school. 

The  Text-book  in  the  Recitation.  —  Owing  to  the 
general  lack  of  pedagogical  training  among  the  great 
body  of  teachers  in  former  times,  doubtless  the  pub- 
lishers best  met  the  situation  by  text-books  of  the 
character  described,  for  it  must  be  said  that  publishers 
of  school  books  are  alert  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
schools.  It  is  natural  that  the  commercial  standpoint 
should  dominate  their  activities;  nevertheless,  they 
have  done  a  great  deal  to  foster  and  further  educational 
reform  and  progress.  It  is  not  so  long  ago  that 
institute  conductors  and  educational  reformers  began 
to  advocate  the  exclusion  of  the  text-book  from  the 
hands  of  the  teacher  during  the  recitation,  at  least 
that  she  should  not  be  a  slave  to  its  question  and 
answer  plan.  It  was  urged  that  the  teacher  should 
teach  the  subject  rather  than  the  text-book;  that  she 
should  possess  such  a  mastery  of  the  subject  to  be 
taught  that  the  questions  should  flow  from  her  fullness 
of  knowledge;  that  she  should  be  so  free  in  her  ques- 
tions that  both  teacher  and  pupils  should  forget  the 
existence  of  the  text-book.  Such  teaching  makes  the 
recitation  a  really  live  and  interesting  exercise  rather 
than  the  mere  hearing  of  the  lesson.  Teachers  re- 


THE    ART    OF    QUESTIONING  113 

garded  this  innovation  with  distrust,  especially  the 
older  ones,  who  had  comfortably  rested  upon  the 
simple  and  easy  plan  of  taking  everything  from 
the  book  as  law  and  gospel,  and  expecting  from  their 
pupils  nothing  but  what  was  found  therein.  Such  a 
plan  required  little  preparation  or  study,  and  stimulated 
no  progress  on  the  part  of  the  teachers.  The  new 
method  was  the  beginning  of  a  tremendous  educational 
awakening.  It  required  teachers  to  be  prepared,  it 
made  the  subject  interesting,  it  awakened  the  pupils, 
it  stimulated  thought  in  both  teachers  and  pupils,  it 
gave  greater  freedom,  it  recognized  an  educational 
science,  and  it  crowded  the  text-book  into  the  back- 
ground. 

Colonel  Francis  W.  Parker  was  the  foremost  leader  in 
this  movement.  In  his  speeches  and  writings  he  ad- 
vocated the  reform,  and  at  Quincy,  Mass.,  he  demon- 
strated the  practicability  of  his  ideas.  He  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  teachers  over  all  the  land,  and  the 
" Quincy  Methods"  became  celebrated.  Critics  ques- 
tioned the  success  of  his  work  when  measured  by 
ordinary  school  standards;  but  when  the  children  of 
Quincy  were  subjected  to  the  regular  county  exami- 
nations with  the  other  schools,  they  passed  from  ten 
to  forty  per  cent  higher  than  the  average  of  the  county 
in  the  various  subjects.  Colonel  Parker's  work  wonder- 
fully stimulated  educational  progress  throughout  the 
United  States,  and  his  name  will  ever  be  held  in 
grateful  remembrance  as  one  of  the  greatest  educators 
that  this  country  has  produced. 

In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  movement  the  text-book 
was  abolished  from  many  schools,  but  later  a  saner 


ii4  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

view  prevailed,  in  which  the  reconstructed  text-book 
was  accepted  as  a  guide  and  an  aid  rather  than  as  a 
master  slavishly  to  be  followed.  The  text-book  in 
most  school  subjects  clearly  has  a  place  in  the  school. 
It  is  the  accumulated  results  of  the  experience  of  wise 
teachers;  it  furnishes  a  practical  and  sequential  order 
of  procedure;  it  saves  the  teacher  a  great  deal  of  time 
by  its  accumulated  facts;  it  represents  the  progress 
in  educational  affairs,  so  that  the  teachers  of  today 
may  start  where  their  predecessors  leave  off.  They 
start  "On  the  shoulders  of  the  human  race,"  as  Rosen- 
kranz  puts  it.  The  text-book  is  especially  necessary  for 
the  large  number  of  untrained  teachers  that  we  still 
have.  It  will  always  be  used  as  a  guide  and  helper 
to  the  teachers  and  as  an  aid  to  the  pupils,  but  its 
use  in  the  recitation  should  be  limited. 

The  Socratic  Method  of  Questioning.  —  The  great 
Athenian  philosopher  and  teacher  gave  to  the  world 
a  method  peculiarly  his  own  and  which  bears  his  name. 
This  method  was  dialectic;  that  is,  it  consisted  of 
questions  and  answers  with  logical  sequence.  It  is 
true  that  most  of  his  questions  could  be  answered  by 
"Yes"  and  "No,"  but  his  questions  stimulated  thought 
and  awakened  interest;  in  short,  they  led  by  a  skilful 
system  of  reasoning  to  the  truth  that  the  master  had 
in  mind  from  the  first  and  was  seeking  to  teach. 
They  admitted  of  no  guesswork,  but  required  the 
keenest  intellectual  insight  on  the  part  of  both 
Socrates  and  his  hearers,  who  were  compelled  by  the 
irresistible  logic  of  the  questions  finally  to  an  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  truth. 

Some  have  falsely  interpreted  the   Socratic  Method 


THE   ART   OF   QUESTIONING  11$ 

to  mean  any  system  of  questioning  which  requires 
only  monosyllabic  answers.  A  college  president 
boasted  that  his  method  was  Socratic.  The  following 
illustrates  his  method.  The  subject  was  ethics,  with 
the  sophomore  class.  Question.  "Mr.  Jones,  ethics 
has  to  do  with  man's  relation  to  his  fellowman,  has 
it  not?"  Ans.  "Yes,  sir."  Question.  "Mr.  Wilson, 
should  a  man  respect  the  rights  of  his  neighbor?" 
Ans.  "Yes,  sir."  Question.  "Mr.  Johnson,  is  decep- 
tion ever  justifiable?"  As  this  question  admits  of 
either  answer,  Mr.  Johnson  guesses  "No,"  thinking 
that  was  the  answer  expected.  "Correct;  a  lie  is  never 
justifiable,"  solemnly  announces  the  president.  And 
so  the  farce  goes  on,  and  if  a  student  made  a  wrong 
answer  the  pained  expression  of  his  instructor  led  him 
quickly  to  change  his  answer,  to  the  relief  of  both 
parties.  A  good  guesser  could  hit  the  right  answer 
half  the  time,  perhaps  more,  and  therefore  it  is  easy 
to  see  that  those  students  did  very  little  study  in  the 
subject  of  ethics.  If  there  had  been  real  instruction, 
the  students  would  have  gotten  something  out  of  the 
study  during  the  recitation,  even  if  they  did  little 
studying.  As  it  was,  the  time  was  utterly  wasted. 
A  quotation  from  Socrates  himself  will  perhaps  be  the 
best  illustration  of  his  method.1 

SOCRATES.  "Consider  then;  does  it  not  appear  to 
you  to  have  been  rightly  settled  that  we  ought  not  to 
respect  all  the  opinions  of  men,  but  some  we  should 
and  others  not?  Nor  yet  the  opinions  of  all  men,  but 

1  This  selection  is  taken  from  "Crito,  or  the  Duty  of  a  Citizen."  It 
is  necessarily  incomplete,  but  the  purpose  here  is  merely  to  illustrate  the 
Socratic  Method. 


n6  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

of  some  we  should,  and  of  others  not?  What  say  you? 
Is  this  not  rightly  resolved?  " 

CRITO.     "It  is." 

SOCRATES.  "  Therefore,  we  should  respect  the  good, 
but  not  the  bad?" 

CRITO.     "Yes." 

SOCRATES.  "And  are  not  the  good  those  of  the 
wise,  and  the  bad  those  of  the  foolish?" 

CRITO.     "How  can  it  be  otherwise?" 

SOCRATES.  "Come,  then;  how  again  were  the  fol- 
lowing points  settled?  Does  a  man  who  practices 
gymnastic  exercises,  and  applies  himself  to  them,  pay 
attention  to  the  praise  and  censure  and  opinion  of 
everyone,  or  that  of  one  man  only  who  happens  to 
be  a  physician  or  a  teacher  of  the  exercises?" 

CRITO.     "Of  that  one  only." 

SOCRATES.  "He  ought,  therefore,  to  fear  the  cen- 
surers  and  covet  the  praises  of  that  one,  but  not 
more  of  the  multitude?" 

CRITO.     "Clearly." 

SOCRATES.  "He  ought,  therefore,  so  to  practice  and 
exercise  himself,  and  to  eat  and  drink,  as  seems  fitting 
to  the  one  who  presides  and  knows,  rather  than  to 
all  others  together?" 

CRITO.     "It  is  so." 

SOCRATES.  "Well,  then,  if  he  disobeys  the  one,  and 
disregards  his  opinion  and  praise,  but  respects  that  of 
the  multitude  and  of  those  who  know  nothing,  will 
he  not  suffer  some  evil?" 

CRITO.     "How  should  he  not?" 

SOCRATES.  "But  what  is  this  evil?  Whither  does  it 
tend,  and  on  what  part  of  him  that  disobeys  will  it  fall?  " 


THE   ART   OF   QUESTIONING  1 17 

CRITO.     "  Clearly  on  his  body,  for  this  it  ruins. " 

SOCRATES.  "You  say  well.  The  case  is  the  same  too, 
Crito,  with  all  other  things,  not  to  go  through  them 
all.  With  respect,  then,  to  things  just  and  unjust, 
base  and  honorable,  good  and  evil,  about  which  we 
are  now  consulting,  ought  we  to  follow  the  opinion 
of  the  multitude,  and  to  respect  it,  or  that  of  one,  if 
there  is  anyone  who  understands,  whom  we  ought  to 
reverence  and  respect  rather  than  all  others  together? 
And  if  we  do  not  obey  him,  shall  we  not  corrupt  and 
injure  that  part  of  ourselves  which  becomes  better  by 
justice,  but  is  ruined  by  injustice?  Or  is  this  nothing?" 

CRITO.     "I  agree  with  you,  Socrates." 

SOCRATES.  "Come,  then;  if  we  destroy  that  which 
becomes  better  by  what  is  wholesome,  but  is  impaired 
by  what  is  unwholesome,  through  being  persuaded  by 
those  who  do  not  understand,  can  we  enjoy  life  when 
that  is  impaired?  And  this  is  the  body  we  are  speak- 
ing of,  is  it  not?" 

CRITO.     "Yes." 

SOCRATES.  "Can  we,  then,  enjoy  life  with  a  diseased 
and  impaired  body?" 

CRITO.     "By  no  means." 

SOCRATES.  "But  can  we  enjoy  life  when  that  is  im- 
paired which  injustice  ruins,  but  justice  benefits?  Or 
do  we  think  that  to  be  of  less  value  than  the  body, 
whatever  part  of  us  it  may  be,  about  which  injustice 
and  justice  are  concerned?" 

CRITO.     "By  no  means." 

SOCRATES.     "But  of  more  value?" 

CRITO.     "Much  more." 

SOCRATES.     "We  must  not,  then,  my  excellent  friend, 


n8  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

so  much  regard  what  the  multitude  will  say  of  us,  but 
what  he  will  say  who  understands  the  just  and  the 
unjust;  the  one  even  truth  itself.  So  that  at  first 
you  did  not  set  out  with  a  right  principle,  when  you 
laid  it  down  that  we  ought  to  regard  the  opinion  of 
the  multitude  with  respect  to  things  just  and  honorable 
and  good,  and  their  contraries.  However,  someone 
may  say,  are  not  the  multitude  able  to  put  us  to 
death?  " 

CRITO.  "This,  too,  is  clear,  Socrates;  anyone  might 
say  so." 

SOCRATES.  "You  say  truly.  But,  my  admirable 
friend,  this  principle  which  we  have  just  discussed 
appears  to  me  to  be  the  same  as  it  was  before.  And 
consider  this,  moreover,  whether  it  still  holds  good  with 
us  or  not,  that  we  are  not  to  be  anxious  about  living, 
but  about  living  well." 

CRITO.     "It  does  hold  good." 

SOCRATES.  "And  does  this  hold  good  or  not,  that 
to  live  well  and  honorably  and  justly  are  the  same 
thing?" 

CRITO.     "It  does." 

This  example  of  Socratic  teaching  shows  that  while 
the  answers  are  short,  they  indicate  that  the  disciple 
has  an  intelligent  conception  of  the  lesson  taught,  and 
that  he  is  gradually  being  led  into  a  knowledge  of  the 
truth  in  the  master's  mind  from  the  beginning.  Thus 
to  lead  the  pupil  is  the  height  of  pedagogical  skill  in 
the  art  of  questioning. 

The  Characteristics  of  Good  Questions.  —  Sound  ques- 
tioning depends  wholly  upon  three  factors,  —  the  teacher, 
the  lesson,  and  the  pupil,  —  and  the  wise  teacher  will 


THE  ART  OF   QUESTIONING  IIQ 

adapt  the  question  to  the  needs  of  the  children.  In 
general,  the  question  is  used  in  the  recitation  to  ana- 
lyze the  knowledge  of  the  children  into  its  elements 
in  order  to  freshen  its  full  meaning,  to  help  the  student 
to  secure  a  clear  understanding  of  rules  and  principles, 
to  drill  the  student  after  new  knowledge  has  been 
presented,  and  finally,  to  test  his  grasp  of  this  new 
knowledge.  A  few  rules  for  questioning  may  be 
suggested. 

i.  The  questions  should  be  simple.  —  The  questions 
should  be  plain  and  clear,  so  that  the  pupil  may  under- 
stand exactly  what  is  wanted.  It  is  the  instructor's 
business  to  put  the  questions  in  such  a  manner  and 
in  such  language  that  the  pupils  do  not  have  to  puzzle 
over  them.  Their  whole  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  truths  or  facts  to  be  brought  out.  Every  bit 
of  attention  or  strength  devoted  to  the  solution  of  the 
puzzle  involved  in  the  obscure  question  is  just  so  much 
attention  and  strength  withdrawn  from  the  main 
thing,  which  is  the  grasping  of  the  knowledge  that  the 
teacher  is  seeking  to  impart. 

Making  the  questions  simple  does  not  mean  that 
they  are  devoid  of  thought.  It  simply  means  that 
they  are  to  be  brought  down  to  the  immediate  com- 
prehension of  those  to  be  taught.  Simplicity  does  not 
necessarily  mean  foolishness  or  want  of  power.  Some 
of  the  greatest  men  that  have  lived  have  been  noted 
for  the  simplicity  of  their  lives  and  of  the  language 
they  used.  To  use  obscure  language  is  an  evidence  of 
obscure  vision  and  a  lack  of  mastery  of  the  theme 
treated,  whether  in  thought  or  in  writing.  The  Great 
Teacher  employed  the  simplest  language,  and  by  parable 


120  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

and  other  happy  illustrations  He  brought  His  sublime 
truths  down  to  the  understanding  of  His  disciples  and 
the  multitudes  who  followed  Him. 

It  is  related  that  Helen  Keller  once  took  an  exami- 
nation in  which  the  questions  were  written  in  a  different 
system  of  characters  for  the  blind  than  that  to  which 
she  was  accustomed.  In  a  word,  before  she  could  begin 
to  answer  the  questions  she  was  obliged  to  cipher 
out  the  signs  in  order  to  understand  what  was  re- 
quired. It  was  almost  as  if  one  who  knew  only  the 
English  language  were  given  a  set  of  questions  in  some 
foreign  tongue.  Instead  of  giving  her  whole  attention 
to  the  theme  in  which  she  was  being  examined,  and 
for  which  alone  she  would  be  marked,  she  had  to 
waste  her  time  and  strength  in  finding  out  what  was 
wanted.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  this  marvelous 
woman  succeeded  in  passing  the  examination,  but  the 
fact  remains  that  she  was  unfairly  handicapped. 

Whether  it  be  in  an  examination  or  in  a  daily  recita- 
tion, it  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  put  the  questions 
so  that  they  may  be  readily  understood.  Otherwise 
the  teacher  herself  is  lacking  in  pedagogical  skill  and 
is  answerable  for  failures.  Every  teacher,  therefore, 
should  devote  careful  study  to  the  art  of  framing 
questions  which  will  be  concise  and  clear,  well  within 
the  comprehension  of  the  pupils,  and  which  will  show 
a  definite  aim  that  she  has  had  in  mind  from  the  first. 

2.    The   questions   should,    be    given   in    logical   sequence. 

-  With  a  final  end  in  view,  the  teacher  should  lead 

up  step  by  step,  from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  from 

the   easy    to    the    difficult,    from    the    concrete    to    the 

abstract,  from  the  particular  to  the  general.     I  have 


THE   ART   OF   QUESTIONING  121 

shown  elsewhere  that  the  goal  to  seek  in  teaching  is 
the  abstract  notion.  From  the  outset  the  teacher  has 
a  definite  purpose  in  every  recitation  of  which  she 
never  loses  sight.  That  purpose  will  be  best  at- 
tained if  the  various  steps  are  sequential.  Every 
recitation  should  start  at  the  point  where  in  a  previous 
lesson  the  pupils  left  off.  Hence  there  should  be  a 
brief  review  of  this  previous  lesson,  in  order  to  fix  that 
and  to  prepare  the  pupils  for  the  new  material.  The 
blacksmith  heats  the  end  of  both  pieces  of  steel  that 
he  wishes  to  weld  into  one  piece.  After  both  are 
heated  to  a  molten  state,  he  claps  the  ends  together, 
and  a  few  blows  unite  the  two  pieces  into  one.  If 
both  are  not  so  heated,  no  amount  of  hammering  will 
cause  them  to  weld.  So  it  is  with  teaching.  The 
old  must  be  heated  up,  as  it  were,  and  then  the  new 
may  be  bound  to  it.  Call  this  by  any  name  you  will,  — 
the  apperceptive  process,  the  association  of  ideas,  or 
the  logical  procedure, —  it  is  the  vital  and  essential 
method  and  without  it  teaching  cannot  be  successful. 

Having  recalled  the  old  and  brought  it  vividly  to  the 
front,  the  next  step  is  to  proceed  to  the  new  that  is 
nearest  related.  The  following  may  be  taken  as  an 
example  of  sequential  questioning.  The  theme  is  the 
battle  of  Trenton.  By  review,  the  discouraging  con- 
dition of  the  American  cause  had  been  made  clear. 
Washington's  retreat  across  New  Jersey  had  been 
described  and  the  exultation  of  the  British  shown. 
Cornwallis  had  sent  dispatches  to  England  that  the 
war  was  over.  With  the  situation  clearly  understood 
by  the  class,  the  order  of  questioning  might  be  as 
follows: — Question.  "Where  was  the  American  army?" 


122  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

Ans.  "The  American  army  was  encamped  on  the 
Pennsylvania  side  of  the  Delaware,  a  few  miles  above 
Trenton. "  Question.  " Where  was  the  British  army?" 
Ans.  "The  main  body  of  the  British  army  was  at 
Princeton,  and  a  detachment  of  their  allies,  the 
Hessians,  was  quartered  at  Trenton."  Question. 
"What  did  Washington  resolve  upon?"  Ans.  "Wash- 
ington decided  to  strike  a  blow  at  Trenton."  Ques- 
tion. "What  course  did  he  pursue?"  Ans.  "He 
crossed  the  Delaware  during  the  night  of  December 
25,  1776,  marched  in  two  columns  upon  Trenton,  and 
attacked  the  enemy  in  the  early  morning  of  the  26th." 
Question.  "Who  commanded  the  Hessians?"  Ans. 
"Colonel  Rail."  Question.  "What  was  the  situation 
in  Trenton?"  Ans.  "The  Hessians,  thinking  them- 
selves secure,  had  given  themselves  up  to  Christmas 
festivities."  Question.  "What  was  the  result  of  the 
battle?"  Ans.  "The  surprise  was  complete  and  a 
great  victory  was  gained.  Colonel  Rail  was  killed  and 
1000  Hessians  were  taken  prisoners."  Question. 
"What  was  the  effect  of  this  victory  upon  the  American 
cause?"  Ans.  "It  revived  the  spirits  of  our  patriots 
and  proved  to  be  the  turning-point  in  the  Revolution." 
Of  course  in  the  development  of  this  lesson  with  chil- 
dren, many  more  questions  than  those  above  given 
must  be  asked.  This,  however,  illustrates  the  sequen- 
tial order  of  procedure. 

3.  The  questions  should  aim  to  discover  the  knowl- 
edge possessed.  —  It  is  true  that  inability  to  answer 
questions  will  reveal  to  the  teacher  the  ignorance  of 
the  pupils.  But  I  take  it  that  this  is  not  the  main 
purpose  of  questioning.  "A  fool  can  ask  questions 


THE   ART   OF   QUESTIONING  123 

that  a  wise  man  cannot  answer"  is  a  well-known  say- 
ing. The  teacher  has  in  mind  the  facts  that  she  de- 
sires her  pupils  to  possess.  She  has  previously  assigned , 
the  lesson,  given  the  necessary  explanation  of  it,  and 
made  definitely  clear  just  what  is  desired.  She  has 
especially  indicated  where  the  material  is  to  be  found 
in  case  research  is  expected.  Too  careful  attention 
cannot  be  paid  to  this  last  point,  especially  with  young 
children.  Much  time  is  wasted  and  many  pupils 
flounder  in  their  study  because  they  do  not  know  ex- 
actly what  is  wanted  nor  where  to  find  it.  Book  and 
page  should  be  specified,  so  that  the  attention  can  be 
wholly  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  thing  desired. 
With  the  preparation  which  such  study  should  give, 
the  teacher  may  then  question  the  pupils  upon  the 
lesson.  It  is  her  duty  to  discover  how  attentive  the 
pupils  have  been  to  the  instruction  she  has  given  and 
how  faithfully  they  have  performed  the  task  assigned. 
She  may  ask:  "How  much  time  have  you  spent  on 
this  lesson? ",  but  that  will  be  no  final  test  of  faith- 
fulness or  of  intelligence  in  study.  For  a  pupil  may 
spend  time  dilly-dallying  over  the  task  without  accom- 
plishing anything.  He  should  be  taught  to  concentrate 
his  efforts  and  get  the  lesson  as  soon  as  he  can,  pro- 
vided he  gets  it  thoroughly. 

What  the  pupils  know  is  the  thing  the  teacher  must 
find  out  by  questioning.  To  attempt  to  discover  what 
they  do  not  know  is  too  large  a  task  for  finite  minds, 
for  what  we  know  is  brought  within  very  circum- 
scribed limits,  while  what  we  do  not  know  is  boundless. 
Why  attempt  the  impossible?  Find  out  what  the 
children  know  of  the  subject  in  hand,  what  is  on  the 


124  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

borderland  of  their  knowledge,  what  are  the  things  of 
which  perhaps  they  have  caught  only  glimpses,  but 
do  not  attempt  to  fathom  the  great  universe  which 
lies  beyond  their  horizon.  If  the  questioning  is  well 
done,  the  pupils  will  have  the  satisfaction  of  mastery 
gained  over  some  things  and  will  also  be  made  eager 
to  know  the  mysterious  things  that  have  been  hinted 
at  and  of  which  they  have  caught  interesting  glimpses. 
Such  an  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  will  not 
discourage  pupils  who  although  they  have  done  their 
best  have  yet  failed.  It  will  show  them  wherein  they 
have  come  short  and  what  they  must  do  to  win  future 
victories. 

I  desire  to  emphasize  this  viewpoint,  for  it  is  vital 
to  good  teaching.  The  purpose  of  the  recitation  is  not 
to  see  how  many  of  the  class  you  can  find  deficient 
in  knowledge,  but  it  is  rather  to  build  up,  to  strengthen, 
to  fix,  to  give  confidence,  to  add  to  the  sum  of  the 
pupils'  knowledge.  To  prove  that  the  pupils  do  not 
know  the  lesson  does  not  show  good  teaching.  Thirty- 
two  out  of  thirty-five  juniors  in  a  college  class  in 
algebra  failed  in  an  examination.  There  is  no  es- 
caping one  of  two  alternatives;  either  the  teaching 
had  been  faulty  or  the  questions  were  too  hard.  In 
either  case  the  fault  lay  with  the  professor,  for  with 
good  teaching  and  fair  questions  there  could  never 
have  been  so  large  a  proportion  of  failures.  The 
majority  at  least  of  any  class  should  be  able  to  do  the 
work  given  them.  If  the  teacher  finds  that  most  of 
her  class  cannot  master  the  work,  it  is  evident  that 
there  should  be  a  change  in  the  method  employed,  in 
the  material  offered,  or  a  change  of  teachers. 


THE   ART   OF   QUESTIONING  125 

4.  The  question  should  demand  a  full  answer  in  a 
complete  sentence.  —  Generally  speaking,  the  teacher 
should  require  a  complete  statement  in  the  answers 
of  her  pupils.  This  method  requires  thought,  fixes 
the  material,  holds  the  attention,  tends  to  establish 
the  continuity  of  the  theme,  and  prevents  mere  book- 
ish answers.  Besides  this,  it  affords  an  excellent  train- 
ing in  the  use  of  language.  An  example  of  this 
method  may  be  given  as  follows:  Question.  " Where 
is  the  Hudson  River? "  Ans.  "The  Hudson  River 
is  in  the  eastern  part  of  New  York  State."  Question. 
"Into  what  bay  does  it  flow?"  Ans.  "It  flows  into 
New  York  Bay."  Question.  "What  great  city  is 
located  at  its  mouth?"  Ans.  "New  York  City  is 
located  at  its  mouth."  Question.  "Why  should  a 
great  city  grow  up  at  this  point?"  Ans.  "A  great 
city  would  develop  because  of  the  splendid  bay  at  the 
mouth,  the  Hudson  on  the  one  side,  and  the  East 
River  on  the  other."  Of  course  in  drawing  out  the 
last  answer,  the  teacher  has  discussed  the  importance 
of  water  communication  in  the  locality  of  cities,  the 
Erie  Canal  and  Hudson  River  opening  up  the  great 
West  directly  to  New  York,  and  the  connection  of  the 
East  River  with  Long  Island  Sound  and  the  East, 
etc.  This  is  a  part  of  the  teaching  of  geography.  I 
am  not  outlining  a  scheme  of  teaching  geography,  but 
rather  illustrating  a  method  of  questioning. 

While  in  general  full  statements  should  be  required 
of  the  children,  there  are  times  when  this  becomes 
stilted  and  perfunctory.  In  rapid  work,  as  in  reviews, 
brief  answers  may  be  accepted.  The  art  requires  good 
judgment  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  common  sense, 


126  TEACHING:     ITS   AIMS   AND   METHODS 

and  the  ability  to  vary  the  method  so  as  to  keep  up 
the  interest.  In  general  full  statements  should  be  re- 
quired, but  this  should  not  always  be  strictly  adhered  to. 

5.  The  questions  lead  to  new  knowledge.  —  While  the 
first  purpose,  as  we  have  just  seen,  is  to  find  out 
what  the  pupils  know,  the  recitation  that  does  no  more 
than  that  is  faulty.  By  skilful  questioning  the  teacher 
will  bring  up  new  knowledge.  Teaching  involves  both 
testing  the  acquirement  of  old  knowledge  and  instruct- 
ing in  the  new.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  mere 
questioning  of  the  class  has  a  measure  of  instruction 
in  it,  for  the  pupils  learn  through  hearing  others  recite, 
and  the  very  act  of  reciting  deepens  and  clarifies  the 
knowledge  of  the  pupil  himself.  Children  learn  a 
great  deal  from  one  another,  not  only  in  their  sports, 
but  also  in  the  schoolroom.  The  eager  and  wise  stu- 
dent is  m9st  alert  and  gives  his  most  concentrated 
attention  to  his  studies  during  the  recitation.  If  he 
is  keenly  attentive  to  whatever  the  instructor  presents, 
he  ought  to  gain  such  a  mastery  of  the  subject  in  hand 
that  his  outside  study  will  consist  largely  in  clarifying, 
verifying,  extending,  and  fixing  what  the  classroom 
has  offered  him.  I  can  give  no  stronger  advice  to  the 
student  than  this:  Give  your  best  effort  to  the  work 
offered  in  the  classroom. 

German  teachers  possess  wonderful  skill  in  the  art 
of  questioning,  since  great  stress  is  laid  upon  this 
pedagogical  feature  in  their  normal  school  training. 
They  present  a  theme  to  the  pupils  and  then  question 
in  all  the  details,  so  that  when  the  period  of  instruc- 
tion is  over  the  pupils  have  practically  mastered  the 
lesson.  As  a  consequence  but  little  home-study  is 


THE   ART   OF    QUESTIONING  127 

required  or  necessary.  The  pupils  have  no  alternate 
periods  of  study  and  recitation,  as  is  common  in 
American  schools,  nor  do  they  have  much  home-work. 
"How  much  home-work  do  you  expect  of  your  pupils?'' 
was  asked  of  a  German  teacher  of  an  elementary 
school.  "Not  more  than  fifteen  minutes  a  day  for  the 
little  folks  and  not  over  an  hour  for  the  higher  classes," 
was  the  reply.  From  our  standpoint  it  was  a  mystery 
how  the  children  learned  their  lessons.  I  discovered 
the  answer  to  be  simple  enough  after  visiting  many 
German  schools.  They  learn  through  the  instructor, 
by  means  of  the  remarkable  manner  of  questioning.  Old 
knowledge  is  sifted,  clarified,  and  fixed,  while  new  and 
related  knowledge  is  added  to  it.  I  have  shown  else- 
where (pages  20,  140)  that  this  plan  has  its  drawbacks 
in  that  possibly  it  makes  the  child  too  dependent  upon 
the  teacher,  too  little  inclined  to  help  himself,  and  fails 
to  give  him  the  desire  and  ability  to  go  on  with  his 
education  after  he  leaves  school.  But  it  is  certainly 
very  effective  in  accomplishing  what  it  sets  out  to  do, 
namely,  to  give  a  complete  mastery  of  the  subject 
which  the  teacher  presents. 

The  ideal  will  be  reached  when,  by  whatever  method 
employed,  we  have  inspired  the  pupil  with  a  desire 
for  further  knowledge  and  taught  him  how  and  where 
to  find  it.  When  this  ideal  has  been  reached  in  a  boy's 
education,  we  have  done  our  best  for  him.  His  edu- 
cation will  be  well  begun,  and  when  he  leaves  school 
he  will  be  able  to  continue  it  wherever  he  may  be  and 
whatever  may  be  his  condition  in  life. 

6.  The  questions  should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
provoke  thought.  —  Possibly  this  idea  has  been  brought 


128  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

out  in  former  discussions.  It  is  so  important,  how- 
ever, that  a  further  consideration  may  be  advisable. 
We  have  seen  that  "Yes"  and  "No"  answers  may  be 
mere  guesswork  and  furnish  no  evidence  of  thought. 
The  whole  purpose  of  teaching  is  to  lead  pupils  to 
think,  and  the  recitation  that  has  failed  to  stimulate 
the  thought  activity  may  be  considered  seriously 
defective.  In  the  recitation  in  history  described  on 
page  138,  we  find  a  simple  memory  exercise  with  no 
arousing  of  thought  concerning  the  past  events  of 
the  world  and  their  relation  to  the  life  of  man.  Hence, 
as  an  example  of  teaching  it  was  a  failure.  No  sub- 
ject offers  better  material  to  set  the  pupils  thinking 
than  history.  The  study  of  the  causes  of  great  events, 
of  their  effects  upon  the  progress  of  the  race,  and  of 
the  results  that  follow,  calls  for  thought.  Unless 
thought  is  stimulated,  there  is  little  use  in  studying 
history. 

After  all,  it  is  the  power  to  think  that  prepares  men  to 
meet  emergencies,  that  advances  one  man  over  another 
in  any  field  of  life,  that  solves  difficult  problems,  that 
insures  success,  that  makes  men  great. 

Every  exercise  in  the  school  should  stimulate  think- 
ing. The  teacher  that  awakens  interest  in  things  so 
that  they  are  talked  about  among  the  children  and 
in  the  home,  that  sets  the  pupils  searching  libraries, 
observing  and  investigating  the  phenomena  of  nature, 
in  a  word,  that  arouses  the  mental  powers,  —  such  a 
teacher  has  discovered  the  vital  principle  of  success  in 
her  calling.  Thus  the  art  of  questioning  becomes  the 
most  important  acquisition  in  the  teaching  of  children. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

GENERAL  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Progress  in  Methods.  —  There  is  a  disposition  on  the 
part  of  young  teachers  to  perpetuate  the  methods  by 
which  they  were  taught  in  childhood.  Even  a  course 
in  a  normal  school  which  teaches  the  latest  and 
standard  methods  often  fails  to  eliminate  this  tendency. 
"Did  you  learn  these  methods  in  the  normal  school? " 
was  asked  of  a  recent  graduate  by  the  county  superin- 
tendent upon  his  first  visit.  "No,"  was  the  reply; 
"that  is  the  way  I  was  taught  as  a  child."  Now  it 
does  not  follow  that  old  methods  are  always  wrong, 
or  that  new  methods  are  always  right.  There  are  many 
thoughtful  persons,  and  educators  among  them,  who 
seriously  question  many  modern  methods  and  who 
are  by  no  means  prepared  to  discard  all  that  is  old. 
But  the  study  of  psychology  in  recent  years  and  its 
application  to  education  is  beginning  to  furnish  a 
sound  basis  for  teaching  and  to  establish  educational 
practice.  The  old-time  school  undertook  but  little, 
but  what  it  attempted  to  do  was  done  thoroughly. 
Drill,  drill,  drill  was  the  watchword  of  the  old  school- 
master, a  .watchword  that  has  all  too  much  fallen 
out  of  the  vocabulary  of  the  modern  teacher.  To 
learn  a  few  things  well  is  infinitely  better  than  to  get 
a  smattering  of  many  things. 

But   there   has   been   great   progress   in   educational 


130  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

method.  In  1843,  Horace  Mann,  then  Secretary  of  the 
Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  went  to  Europe, 
where  he  studied  the  schools  of  England,  France, 
Switzerland,  and  Germany.  He  was  especially  im- 
pressed with  the  methods  employed  in  the  schools  of 
Prussia.  Upon  his  return  to  America  he  published 
his  celebrated  Seventh  Annual  Report,  which  has 
become  an  educational  classic.  He  attacked  in  this 
memorable  report  in  a  very  forcible  way  the  teaching 
of  reading  by  the  ABC  method.  He  showed  that  this 
method  had  been  abolished  in  Germany  more  than 
twenty  years  before  and  strongly  advocated  the  word 
method  in  its  stead.  Mann's  report  was  vigorously 
attacked  by  teachers  everywhere,  and  especially  by 
the  thirty-one  masters  of  the  Boston  schools.  "They 
thought  that  old-fashioned  spelling  was  right  and 
should  be  continued;  that  the  only  method  by  which 
children  could  be  taught  to  read  was  the  old-fashioned 
ABC  method."  Modern  psychology  has  forever 
settled  this  question.  The  child  can  see  and  grasp 
the  whole  word,  which  carries  an  idea  with  it,  sooner 
than  he  can  grasp  a  letter,  which  alone  does  not  stand 
for  an  idea.  Probably  these  virulent  attacks  em- 
bittered Mr.  Mann  and  influenced  his  withdrawal 
from  public  school  service.  Colonel  Parker,  in  speaking 
of  the  work  of  these  critics,  says,  "They  were  so  far 
successful  that  the  great  reforms  urged  by  Mann  were 
kept  out  of  the  schools  of  Massachusetts,  and,  to  a 
great  extent,  out  of  the  schools  of  the  whole  country, 
for  over  fifty  years." 

The  schools  of  Switzerland  and  Germany  that  Mr. 
Mann   visited  were  feeling   the  impulse   of   the  great 


GENERAL  METHODS  OF  TEACHING         131 

Pestalozzian  movement,  and  the  introduction  of  the 
reforms  instituted  by  Pestalozzi  was  the  first  serious 
attempt  ever  made  in  this  country  to  make  teaching 
systematic.  Horace  Mann  was  greatly  aided  by  the 
normal  school  movement  which  had  just  started  in 
New  England,  and  which  spread  over  the  whole  coun- 
try. The  establishment  of  a  normal  school  is  a  recog- 
nition of  the  necessity  for  trained  teachers,  which,  in 
turn,  implies  scientific  method. 

1 .  The   Oswego    Normal   School.  —  The    early    normal 
schools,   however,   were   compelled   to   devote   most   of 
their  time  to  academic  work,  as  the  students  who  came 
to    them    were    wanting    in    fundamental    knowledge. 
They  had  to  be  taught  reading,  arithmetic,  geography, 
history,  etc.,  before  any  attempt  at  professional  train- 
ing could  be  undertaken.     Oswego  Normal  School  was 
the    first    to    lay    stress    upon    " method    teaching/'    it 
having  brought  to  its  faculty  Hermann  Kriisi,  whose 
father  had   been   a  colaborer  with   Pestalozzi   himself. 
Pestalozzian  methods  attracted  wide  attention  to  Os- 
wego,  and    her    graduates   were    in    great    demand   as 
exponents  of  the  new  ideas. 

2.  The  Quincy  methods.  —  The  next    great  movement 
to  improve  methods  of  teaching  was  that  inaugurated 
by  Colonel  Francis  W.  Parker  at  Quincy,  Mass.     This 
movement  drew  visitors  from  all  parts  of  the  country 
in  great  numbers,  was  discussed  in  educational  papers 
and    at    teachers'    meetings,    and    created    a    deep    im- 
pression.    It  is  probable   that   the   Quincy  movement 
did  more  to  advance  primary  education  in  this  country 
than  any  other  influence  that  has  been  exerted  since 
public  schools  were  founded.     Indeed  no  other  move- 


132  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

ment  since  the  time  of  Horace  Mann  has  exerted  so 
great,  so  permanent,  and  so  salutary  an  influence  upon 
American  education.  Colonel  Parker,  like  Horace  Mann, 
had  spent  some  time  in  studying  German  education. 
Both  men  possessed  an  open  mind  ready  to  receive, 
absorb,  and  adopt  any  means  of  an  educational  advance, 
wherever  found. 

3.  The  Herbartian  movement.  —  At  the  close  of  the 
nineteenth  century  a  fourth  movement,  the  Her- 
bartian, also  of  German  inspiration,  was  started. 
This  was  inaugurated  in  1892,  when  a  body  of  men  who 
had  recently  studied  pedagogy  in  the  German  universi- 
ties, met  and  launched  the  movement  by  founding  the 
Herbart  Society  for  the  study  of  education,  and  by 
publishing  a  translation  of  Karl  Lange's  "  Appercep- 
tion. "  To  the  Herbartians  we  owe  an  interpretation 
of  the  meaning  of  apperception,  a  better  correlation 
of  the  subjects  of  the  curriculum,  greater  emphasis 
upon  the  moral  aim  of  education,  and  the  bringing 
of  the  study  of  the  problems  of  education  to  a  scien- 
tific basis.  Another  important  feature  of  the  work  of 
this  society,  however,  has  been  its  discussions  in  the 
field  of  methodology.1  All  these  movements  have 
tended  to  place  educational  practice  on  a  more  scien- 
tific basis. 

What  is  Method?  —  Method  may  be  defined  as  the 
selection  of  proper  material  and  the  adaptation  of  it  to 
the  needs  of  the  pupil.  Method  is  certainly  something 
more  than  mere  manner  of  doing,  though  Pestalozzi 
says,  "Only  have  a  proper  method,  and  you  will  be 

1  See  the  works  of  De  Garmo,  the  McMurrys,  and  others  of  this  school 


GENERAL  METHODS  OF  TEACHING        133 

surprised  at  the  amount  children  learn  in  a  single 
day."  And  Diesterweg  adds,  "The  typical  power  of 
the  teacher  lies  in  his  method."  But  back  of  this, 
preceding  the  presentation,  there  must  be  a  wise 
choice  as  to  what  subject-matter  is  to  be  learned. 
No  skilful  manipulation,  no  pleasing  manner,  no 
happy  gift  of  presentation,  no  mere  power  of  interest- 
ing children,  however  essential  all  these  may  be,  can 
be  a  substitute  for  lack  of  knowledge  of  subject-matter. 
No  genius  in  the  art  of  teaching  will  suffice  if  there 
is  ignorance  in  regard  to  the  material  that  is  suited 
to  the  wants  of  the  child.  Hence  the  teacher  must 
not  only  know  how  the  child  mind  is  developed,  but 
also  must  be  grounded  herself  in  the  fundamentals. 
She  must  be  able  to  eliminate  the  unsuited,  even 
though  it  may  be  offered  in  the  text-book.  Method 
work  in  the  teachers'  training  school  does  not  consist 
in  giving  typical  lessons  which  the  students  are  blindly 
to  imitate,  but  rather  it  consists  in  teaching  them  to 
estimate  the  needs  and  capacities  of  the  child  and 
how  to  suit  the  material  to  those  needs. 

The  Teacher's  Personality.  —  The  personality  of  the 
teacher  has  much  to  do  with  his  method,  and  he  who 
tries  to  teach  like  a  Socrates,  a  Pestalozzi,  a  Mark 
Hopkins,  or  any  other  instructor  whom  he  may  ad- 
mire, is  likely  to  fail.  A  great  teacher  may  suggest 
an  idea  as  to  method  and  therefore  be  worthy  of 
study,  but  in  the  final  analysis,  no  one  can  reach  high- 
est success  in  teaching  unless  he  exemplifies  his  own 
personality.  The  wise  superintendent  recognizes  this 
and  therefore  does  not  dictate  to  his  teachers  as  to 
their  method  unless  the  method  employed  is  mani- 


134  TEACHING:     ITS   AIMS    AND    METHODS 

festly  unsound  and  unpedagogical.  He  lets  each  one 
work  out  his  own  salvation  and  is  satisfied  if  proper 
results  are  secured. 

The  Essentials  of  Method.  —  There  are  three  things 
essential  to  a  good  method:  namely,  (i)  A  knowledge 
of  subject-matter;  (2)  A  knowledge  of  how  the  mind 
develops;  and  (3)  A  knowledge  of  how  to  present  the 
material.  The  child  must  be  consciously  present.  No 
matter  how  well  articulated  and  logical  the  method, 
no  matter  how  enthusiastic  the  teacher  may  be,  there 
can  be  no  instruction  unless  the  child  is  interested. 
And  the  subject-matter  chosen  is  very  important  in 
securing  this  interest.  Rosenkranz  wisely  remarks, 
"But  the  subject  must  be  adapted  to  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  pupil,  and  here  the  order  of  procedure  and 
exposition  depend  upon  the  stage  which  he  has  reached 
intellectually,  for  the  special  manner  of  instruction 
must  be  conditioned  by  this.  If  he  is  in  the  stage  of 
sense-perception,  we  must  use  the  illustrative  method; 
if  in  the  stage  of  image-conception,  that  of  com- 
bination; and  if  in  the  stage  of  thinking,  that  of 
demonstration.  The  first  exhibits  the  object  directly, 
or  some  representation  of  it;  the  second  considers  it 
according  to  the  different  possibilities  which  exist  in  it, 
and  turns  it  around  on  all  sides  (and  examines  its 
relation  to  other  things);  the  third  demonstrates  the 
necessity  of  the  relations  in  which  it  stands  either 
with  itself  or  with  others.  This  is  the  natural  order 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  developing  intelligence: 
first,  the  object  is  presented  to  the  perception;  then 
combination  with  other  things  shows  its  different 
phases;  and,  finally,  the  thinking  activity  circum- 


GENERAL  METHODS  OF  TEACHING         135 

scribes  the  restlessly  moving  reflection  by  the  idea  of 
necessity. " 

The  best  method  serves  its  purpose  only  through  a 
capable  person  who  carries  it  out  with  intelligence  and 
zeal.  A  model  teacher  without  a  well-digested  method 
is  inconceivable.  Without  personality  method  is  but 
cold  formality.  It  must  be  warmed  by  the  enthusiasm 
of  a  living  teacher.  Method  must  not  be  a  formal 
process  by  'which  the  teacher  measures  every  act. 
This  makes  method  the  master  rather  than  the  servant 
and  guide.  Imbued  with  educational  theory,  possessed 
of  sufficient  general  knowledge,  acquainted  with  the 
laws  of  mental  development,  the  teacher  will  not  go 
astray,  but  will  be  able  to  adapt  her  method  to  chang- 
ing conditions  and  to  individual  pupils.  The  teacher 
is  free  only  when  she  is  no  longer  obliged  to  measure 
every  act  by  fixed  formulas,  when  she  is  not  bound 
by  some  stereotyped  method,  but,  when  inspired  by 
the  underlying  principles  of  teaching,  she  meets  each 
situation  as  it  arises  and  brings  to  her  pupils  the 
right  material  in  the  right  way. 

Different  Methods  of  Instruction.  —  To  bring  the 
subject  to  a  direct  and  practical  basis  let  us  consider 
various  methods. 

i.  Oral  work. —  With  little  children  the  method  of 
approach  will  be  almost  wholly  oral.  Children  love  to 
listen  and  to  talk  themselves.  Hence  there  must  be 
constant  interchange  of  ideas  by  means  of  questions 
and  answers,  by  stories,  and  by  conversation.  If 
children  are  not  allowed  to  take  a  large  part  in  every 
exercise,  their  interest  will  wane.  Many  things  can 
be  learned  in  no  other  way,  and  the  application  of  this 


136  TEACHING:     ITS  AIMS  AND   METHODS 

truth  is  especially  necessary  with  young  children. 
The  child  learns  to  write  by  writing,  to  speak  by 
speaking,  to  read  by  reading,  to  construct  by  working 
with  his  hands,  to  think  by  thinking.  Hence  it  is 
obvious  that  children  must  be  active  participants  in 
the  recitation  or  it  will  be  a  failure.  Every  teacher 
should  frequently  ask  herself,  "Have  I  done  too  much 
talking?"  It  is  so  much  easier  to  get  over  work  by 
telling  the  children  rather  than  to  develop  the  lesson  by 
skilful  questioning.  What  would  one  think  of  a  master 
mechanic  lecturing  to  his  apprentice  concerning  a  trade 
instead  of  putting  tools  into  his  hands  and  setting 
him  at  work?  Children  must  be  given  opportunity  to 
employ  the  knowledge  they  already  have  and  skilfully 
led  from  the  field  of  the  known  into  the  unknown. 

A  caution  may  be  given  at  this  point.  If  allowed 
to  do  so,  children  who  are  fond  of  talking  will  roam 
over  all  creation.  They  must  be  held  to  the  subject  in 
hand  just  as  the  teacher  must  "stick  to  the  text." 
Then,  too,  there  must  be  frequent  repetition  and  re- 
view. One  of  the  advantages  of  the  old-fashioned 
school  was  its  thoroughness,  attained  through  many 
repetitions.  While  there  was  waste  in  this  practice, 
nevertheless  many  important  lessons  were  so  well 
learned  that  they  were  never  forgotten  in  later  life. 
It  is  to  be  feared  that  the  modern  graded  school  has 
gone  to  the  opposite  extreme,  and  that  therefore, 
without  sufficient  repetition,  much  of  its  work  is 
forgotten.  The  curriculum  marks  off  a  certain  part  of 
work  which  must  be  completed  in  a  given  time. 
Each  teacher  naturally  attends  to  the  phase  of  work 
specified  for  her  grade.  And  so  the  pupil  is  pushed  on 


GENERAL  METHODS  OF  TEACHING         137 

from  teacher  to  teacher  and  from  grade  to  grade. 
Unless  there  be  a  wise  and  watchful  principal  to  guide 
the  work,  there  will  be  lack  of  continuity  and  thor- 
oughness. There  should  be  frequent  reviews,  reaching 
back  over  previous  work,  repeating  sufficiently  to  fix 
the  subject-matter  and  unite  it  into  one  complete 
whole.  With  older  children  oral  work  trains  them  to 
speak  while  on  their  feet,  to  use  good  language,  and 
to  think  connectedly. 

2.  Written  work.  —  As  the  children  advance,  there 
are  many  subjects  that  can  be  presented  topically. 
While  the  oral  method  will  be  continued,  the  pupils 
must  be  trained  to  take  a  topic  and  treat  it  in  its  com- 
pleteness. This  can  best  be  done  in  writing,  although 
the  training  in  connected  oral  expression  must  not  be 
neglected.  Some  subjects,  such  as  history,  geography, 
nature  study,  and  language  work  lend  themselves 
to  topical  treatment  more  than  others.  There  are  but 
few  persons  in  this  country,  of  whatever  rank,  who  are 
not  called  upon  at  some  time  in  life  to  make  a  speech. 
We  are  a  nation  of  public  speakers,  and  this  fact  applies 
to  those  in  social,  business,  political,  and  religious  life. 
To  express  one's  self  in  writing  or  orally  is  a  necessary 
accomplishment  and  a  part  of  one's  education.  The 
public  school  must  not  lose  sight  of  this  requirement 
in  training  the  ch'ldren  for  life.  Topical  discussions 
lend  themselves  peculiarly  to  this  end.  They  teach 
clearness  of  thought,  logical  presentation,  good  diction, 
and  therefore  conscious  mastery.  They  train  a  pupil 
to  think  out  a  subject  in  all  its  bearings.  They 
teach  the  pupil  to  discriminate  between  the  essential 
and  the  non-essential,  and  furnish  the  teacher  an 


138  TEACHING:  ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

opportunity  to  criticise  both  thought  and  language. 
While  this  work  will  be  both  oral  and  written,  the 
latter  has  a  wide  scope  in  topical  treatment,  since  the 
whole  class  can  work  simultaneously,  since  more  careful 
thought  and  expression  may  be  demanded,  and  because 
the  pupils  can  be  held  to  stricter  account.  Thus  the 
pupil  is  trained  to  express  himself  in  his  own  language 
and  can  be  detected  if  his  work  is  a  mere  memory 
exercise. 

Teachers  often  have  a  false  notion  as  to  what 
really  constitutes  a  topical  treatment.  I  once  witnessed 
a  lesson  in  history  supposed  to  be  conducted  by  the 
topical  method.  The  teacher  opened  his  text-book 
and  said  to  the  first  pupil,  "You  may  begin. "  The 
pupil  arose  and  recited  the  first  paragraph  word  for 
word.  "Correct,"  said  the  teacher,  "excepting  that 
you  omitted  the  word  and."  He  then  called  upon  the 
next  pupil  to  recite  the  following  paragraph.  The  pu- 
pil arose  and  said,  "I  cannot  remember  how  the  verse 
begins."  The  teacher  started  him  on  the  way  with  the 
first  few  words  and  he  was  able  to  glide  through  the 
"verse"  and  was  marked  ten.  Not  a  word  of  criti- 
cism was  made  excepting  such  as  was  purely  mechani- 
cal, nothing  was  said  about  the  real  meaning  of  the 
lesson,  no  attempt  was  made  to  connect  the  facts  of 
history  or  to  show  how  they  had  anything  to  do  with 
the  life  of  man.  It  was  a  "recitation"  pure  and  simple, 
and  there  was  not  a  particle  of  teaching  in  the  whole 
lesson.  It  was  simply  a  memory  exercise,  and  of  course 
was  not  a  topical  treatment.  The  topical  method  calls 
for  independent  thinking,  for  the  expression  of  one's 
knowledge  clearly  and  connectedly,  for  ability  to  con- 


GENERAL  METHODS  OF  TEACHING         139 

*- 

sider  the  theme  as  a  whole,  for  complete  mastery  of 
the  thought.  It  admits  of  no  guessing,  such  as  is 
possible  in  some  forms  of  questioning  and  answering. 
For  these  reasons,  so  soon  as  pupils  are  able  to  write 
connectedly,  topical  themes  in  tests  and  examinations 
are  fairer  and  more  satisfactory.  Topical  work,  there- 
fore, should  be  both  oral  and  written;  oral,  because 
it  trains  the  pupil  to  think  and  express  himself  con- 
nectedly on  his  feet,  and  written,  because  it  develops 
the  power  to  gain  a  complete  mastery  of  a  subject 
and  furnishes  an  opportunity  to  show  it. 

3.  The  lecture  method.  —  German  teachers  employ 
the  lecture  method,  not  only  in  the  university  but  also 
in  the  elementary  school,  much  more  than  is  common 
with  us.  Text-books  are  very  few,  as  I  have  already 
shown.  The  teacher  tells  his  pupils  what  he  desires 
them  to  know  and  then  questions  upon  what  he  has 
told  them.  For  example,  I  witnessed  a  lesson  in  his- 
tory in  which  the  battle  of  Jena  was  the  theme.  The 
teacher  told  the  story  of  Napoleon's  march  into  Ger- 
many and  Frederick  William  Ill's  advance  to  meet 
him  on  the  heights  above  the  old  university  town.  He 
described  the  alignment  of  troops,  the  attack,  the  over- 
whelming defeat  of  the  Prussian  forces,  the  retreat, 
and  the  final  consequences  to  the  unhappy  people. 
With  maps  he  showed  the  positions  of  the  opposing 
forces  and  called  attention  to  the  genius  of  Napoleon 
in  selecting  an  advantageous  position  and  in  directing 
the  battle.  It  was  a  masterly,  scientific,  and  complete 
analysis  of  this  crucial  battle.  The  teacher  was  thor- 
oughly acquainted  with  his  subject.  After  completing 
the  account,  the  teacher  questioned  his  pupils  upon  the 


140  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

points  he  had  touched.  The  interest  was  intense,  for 
the  portrayal  had  been  vivid,  and  it  was  remarkable 
how  well  the  children  had  mastered  the  lesson.  His- 
tory lends  itself  to  this  method  of  instruction,  and  the 
battle  of  Jena  is  a  peculiarly  striking  theme  to  illus- 
trate this  fact.  But  a  similar  plan  is  followed  with  all 
other  subjects.  Little  home-work  is  required  or  is 
necessary,  as  the  pupils  learn  the  subject  through  the 
teaching  of  it,  as  we  have  seen. 

American  teachers  make  comparatively  little  use  of 
the  lecture  method  in  the  elementary  school,  depend- 
ing more  upon  text-books.  In  determining  which  of 
these  practices  is  the  better,  it  must  be  admitted  that 
the  German  child,  after  eight  years'  schooling,  is  pos- 
sessed of  many  more  facts  and  has  a  more  thorough 
knowledge  of  subject-matter  than  the  American  child 
of  the  same  age.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  method  of 
instruction  employed,  and  in  part  to  the  superiority 
of  the  teaching  force,  as  all  German  teachers  are  pro- 
fessionally trained,  while  only  a  small  part  of  the 
American  teachers  are  so  trained.  More  facts  can 
be  imparted,  and  in  a  shorter  time,  by  the  lecture 
method  than  by  any  other.  For  this  reason  teachers 
are  often  tempted  to  tell  the  pupils  rather  than  to  lead 
them  to  find  out  for  themselves. 

Admitting  that  the  German  child  of  fourteen  has 
more  knowledge  than  the  American  child  of  the  same 
age,  we  may  ask,  Does  he  have  more  power?  Can 
he  use  that  knowledge  better?  Is  he  better  fitted 
to  cope  with  life's  problems?  Is  he  more  likely  to 
continue  to  advance  in  knowledge?  In  answering 
these  vital  questions,  I  would  say  that  unquestionably 


GENERAL  METHODS  OF  TEACHING         141 

the  American  child  has  the  advantage.  "Will  your 
boys  go  on  with  their  educational  growth  after  they 
leave  school?"  I  once  asked  a  Berlin  principal. 
His  unhesitating  answer  was,  "No."  "Why  not?" 
I  asked.  "It  is  a  question  of  bread  and  butter  with 
them.  They  must  go  to  work  as  soon  as  they  leave 
school  and  will  have  no  time  for  further  study/'  was 
his  reply.  "Do  you  think  that  is  the*  whole  reason?"  I 
pursued.  "Well,  what  do  you  think?"  he  finally 
asked.  I  replied  that  by  the  German  method  of  in- 
struction the  child  comes  to  rely  wholly  upon  his 
teacher  for  information.  He  is  not  taught  to  investi- 
gate and  find  out  things  for  himself.  He  does  not  know 
how  to  go  to  books  for  information.  After  he  has 
left  school  and  no  longer  has  his  source  of  information, 
his  teacher,  at  hand,  he  ceases  to  gain  knowledge,  and 
indeed  goes  backward  intellectually.  My  friend  ad- 
mitted the  force  of  the  argument.  The  German  school 
system  is  seeking  to  meet  this  obvious  defect  by  estab- 
lishing continuation  schools  to  follow  the  eight-year 
course,  in  which  the  children  are  offered  an  oppor- 
tunity to  supplement  and  extend  their  previous  work. 
The  American  common  school  seeks  not  only  to 
give  the  child  knowledge,  but  also  power.  It  seeks 
to  put  him  in  the  way  to  help  himself  after  he  leaves 
school,  by  giving  him  the  desire  to  use  and  to  extend 
the  knowledge  he  has  gained.  If  the  school  succeeds 
in  creating  a  love  for  knowledge  and  a  desire  for  its 
acquisition,  it  does  more  for  the  child  than  if  it  fills 
him  with  the  facts  of  history,  science,  mathematics,  or 
stuffs  him  with  literature  and  art,  and  yet  fails  to  give , 
him  the  power  of  intelligent  self-direction  and  initiation. 


142  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

While  the  lecture  method  is  unsuited  to  the  elemen- 
tary grades,  in  the  high  school  it  may  be  properly 
employed  in  some  subjects,  and  in  the  college  and 
university  it  becomes  the  principal  method  of  instruc- 
tion. In  these  institutions  the  learners  have  gained 
the  power  of  self-direction,  and  the  advantages  of  this 
method  may  properly  be  utilized.  These  advantages 
may  be  summarized  as  follows:  (i)  Knowledge  can  be 
imparted  more  rapidly,  as  has  already  been  shown. 
(2)  The  teacher  can  take  the  students  into  fields  that 
may  not  be  treated  in  text-books.  (3)  He  may  select 
his  material  to  suit  his  own  ideals.  (4)  It  offers 
opportunity  for  original  investigation.  (5)  It  allows 
concentration  upon  a  limited  field  when  desired.  (6) 
It  permits  the  teacher  to  become  a  specialist.  Students 
seek  universities,  especially  in  England,  France,  and 
Germany,  where  great  specialists  are  found  who  lecture 
upon  themes  that  mark  the  advance  of  the  world's 
thought  and  learning. 

4.  The  inductive  method.1  -  -  There  are  two  general 
methods  of  approach  to  knowledge,  the  inductive  and 
the  deductive.  It  is  to  Francis  Bacon  that  we  are 
indebted  for  the  inductive  method,  though  Macaulay 
gives  little  credit  to  Bacon  for  this  discovery,  inasmuch 
as  this  method  "has  been  practiced  ever  since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  world  by  every  human  being,"  nor  was 
he  the  "  first  person  who  correctly  analyzed  that 
method  and  explained  its  uses,"  as  Aristotle  had  done 
so  long  before.  It  would  be  unjust  to  withhold  from 
Bacon  the  credit  for  a  great  discovery  on  these  grounds, 

1  See  Smith's  "Systematic  Methodology"  for  a  complete  treatment  of 
the  inductive  and  other  methods. 


GENERAL  METHODS  OF  TEACHING         143 

for  this  reasoning  would  exclude  Franklin  and  Harvey 
and  Pasteur  and  Edison  from  credit  as  discoverers. 
The  discovery  of  the  inductive  method  has  changed 
methods  of  teaching  and  is  of  inestimable  value  to 
mankind.  De  Garmo  says,1  "What  Francis  Bacon 
called  the  new  method  is  in  sharp  contrast  to  the  old 
method  of  the  middle  ages,  when  men  were  concerned 
not  so  much  in  establishing  principles  as  they  were  in 
drawing  conclusions  from  admitted  premises.  The 
difficulty  of  using  the  old  method  as  one  of  research 
was  that  it  assumed  or  accepted  from  authority  the 
principles  from  which  it  reasoned,  whereas  the  great 
need  of  the  new  natural  sciences  was  that  all  these  old 
principles  should  be  verified,  and  that  new  ones  should 
be  established  through  inductive  research  by  means 
of  observation,  experiment,  hypothesis,  and  analogy. 
Bacon  very  properly  rejected  the  old  deductive  method 
as  utterly  impotent  and  barren  in  the  new  field." 

The  watchwords  of  this  method  are  experiment, 
investigate,  verify.  And  the  promulgation  of  these 
ideas  has  led  to  the  establishment  of  laboratories  in 
schools  of  all  kinds  and  in  many  factories.  It  has 
also  instigated  the  founding  and  endowment  of  insti- 
tutions for  research,  which  are  already  yielding  remark- 
able fruits  for  the  alleviation  of  suffering  and  for  the 
benefit  of  the  human  race. 

The  inductive  method  starts  with  individual  things, 
and  by  comparison,  noticing  likenesses  and  differences, 
arrives  at  general  notions.  "The  immediate  purpose 
of  induction,"  remarks  De  Garmo,  "is  of  course  the 
derivation  of  a  rule  or  principle,  the  establishment  of 
"Principles  of  Secondary  Education."  Vol.  II,  p.  76. 


144  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

a  class,  or  the  discovery  of  a  cause  or  effect.  In  other 
words,  the  goal  of  an  inductive  is  a  generalization,  a 
classification,  or  a  causal  relation. "  An  an  illustra- 
tion, take  the  study  of  arithmetic.  Formerly  the 
teacher's  direction  to  a  class  was,  " Learn  the  defini- 
tions and  rules  and  then  see  if  you  can  work  the  ex- 
amples." The  inductive  process  would  require  the 
examples  to  be  worked  first  and  finally  the  rule  to 
be  evolved.  The  teacher  should  first  give  simple 
problems,  then  harder  ones,  until  the  pupils  are  famil- 
iar with  the  process.  Then  they  should  be  required 
to  tell  in  their  own  language  how  they  worked  the 
problems,  and  finally  they  should  commit  to  memory 
the  rule  as  a  formal  addition  to  their  sum  of  knowledge. 

If  approached  in  this  way  by  the  inductive  process, 
the  rule  will  be  comprehended,  whereas  it  would  be 
meaningless  if  learned  at  the  outset.  This  last  step 
is  important,  as  it  fixes'the  principles  in  the  minds  of 
the  children  and  gives  them  norms  or  formulas  correctly 
stated,  which  will  serve  as  fundamental  guides  in 
accurate  thinking  and  in  practical  life. 

5.  The  deductive  method.  —  This  method  starts  out 
with  generalizations, —  laws,  principles,  ruks,  defi- 
nitions, and  proceeds  to  the  individual  application. 
Thus,  committing  rules  in  arithmetic  as  preliminary  to 
solving  problems,  learning  definitions  in  geography  or 
grammar  and  applying  them  later,  studying  botany 
out  of  the  text-book  rather  than  in  the  fields  at  first 
hand,  taking  statements  from  a  book  on  physiology 
instead  of  considering  the  human  body  itself,  are  ex- 
amples of  the  deductive  method. 

Some  subjects  can  best  be  approached  by  the  indue- 


GENERAL  METHODS  OF  TEACHING         145 

live  and  some  by  the  deductive  method.  The  wise 
teacher  will  adapt  herself  to  each  child  and  each  sub- 
ject, sometimes  employing  one  method  and  sometimes 
another.  In  general,  with  young  children  the  method 
is  to  advance  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract,  from 
the  simple  to  the  complex,  from  the  individual  to  the 
general.  With  older  pupils  there  may  be  a  wider 
employment  of  generalizations.  It  may  be  remarked 
that  the  presentation  of  a  subject  by  a  variety  of  meth- 
ods tends  to  deepen  and  fix  the  lesson  in  the  minds 
of  the  children.  The  peculiarities  of  individual  pupils, 
the  personality  of  the  teacher,  and  the  characteristics 
of  the  subject  itself  must  all  be  taken  into  account. 
In  conclusion,  let  me  say  the  teacher  must  not  be  a 
slave  to  method.  She  should  have  the  subject-matter 
so  thoroughly  in  hand,  should  be  so  filled  with  the 
inspiration  of  teaching,  should  so  understand  the  child 
mind  and  its  development,  that  method  becomes  an 
unconscious  instrument  by  means  of  which  she  presents 
the  truth  naturally,  logically,  forcefully,  and  completely, 
so  as  to  leave  deep  and  lasting  impressions. 


CHAPTER   IX 

AIMS  AND  METHODS  IN  READING 

IT  is  not  the  intention  here  to  give  an  exhaustive 
treatment  of  the  methods  to  be  employed  in  teaching 
the  subjects  of  the  elementary  school.  For  such  treat- 
ment the  reader  is  referred  to  special  works  on  these 
subjects.1  I  shall  attempt  to  point  out  the  aim  to 
be  sought  in  each  subject  and  to  add  some  practical 
suggestions  as  to  method.  The  purpose  is  to  give 
assistance  to  the  young  teacher,  who,  perhaps,  has  had 
but  little  preparation  for  teaching  and  not  much  expe- 
rience, is  possessed  of  but  few  books  to  guide  her,  has 
no  one  at  hand  to  counsel  her,  and  yet  is  eagerly 
seeking  light  upon  the  great  problems  of  the  school- 
room. Therefore  I  shall  take  up  the  various  subjects 
of  the  elementary  course  and  throw  light  upon  the 
manner  of  teaching  them. 

Aims  in  Reading.  —  The  most  important  subject 
of  the  school  course  is  reading.  It  is  the  first  subject 
taught  in  point  of  time,  and  the  child's  progress  in 
this  is  the  best  and  most  manifest  sign  of  his  advance- 
ment to  both  teacher  and  parents.  It  is  the  key  to 
educational  success,  and  it  opens  the  door  to  future 
knowledge.  It  is  essential,  not  only  to  school  progress, 

1  McMurry  has  a  series  of  books  on  "Special  Methods"  in  each  of  the 
common  school  branches.  See  also  his  "General  Method,"  De  Garmo's 
"Essentials  of  Method,"  and  Smith's  "Systematic  Methodology." 


AIMS   AND   METHODS   IN   READING  147 

but  also  to  future  self-improvement.  It  is  the  most 
fertile  means  of  gaining  knowledge  of  the  world's 
activities,  and  the  past  and  present  are  recalled  to  the 
mind  of  the  eager  student  through  its  means.  He  who 
cannot  read  is  excluded  from  the  enjoyment  of  litera- 
ture, history,  science,  and  the  current  events  of  the 
world  revealed  through  the  medium  of  newspapers, 
magazines,  and  books.  Nothing  in  the  school  course 
is  of  such  utility  and  furnishes  such  lasting  means  of 
enjoyment  as  reading.  It  must  therefore  naturally 
come  first  in  the  school  in  point  of  time. 

The  two-fold  purpose  that  the  teacher  must  have  in 
mind  in  teaching  reading  is  to  give  the  children  a 
knowledge  of  the  form  of  the  words  and  of  their 
content,  or  the  ideas  that  they  express.  Under  form 
we  include  correct  articulation  and  pronunciation, 
proper  inflection,  and  emphasis.  The  child  must  learn 
-to  pronounce  the  word  at  sight  correctly  and  with 
clear  articulation.  He  must  know  the  word  as  a  whole 
at  a  glance  and  without  the  necessity  of  spelling  it  out. 
The  grasping  of  the  meaning  of  the  word  must  accom- 
pany the  recognition  of  its  form.  Whether  the  form 
or  the  content  of  the  word  is  first  grasped  is  a  disputed 
point.  In  most  cases  they  are  comprehended  prac- 
tically simultaneously.  The  child  has  mastered  form 
only  when  he  has  acquired  a  natural,  fluent,  clear,  and 
accurate  pronunciation.  The  test  of  this  will  be  found 
in  the  rendering  of  the  sentence  as  a  whole,  with  proper 
inflections  and  emphasis,  so  as  to  make  the  thought 
clear  to  the  hearer.  Natural  and  pleasant  expression 
can  be  obtained  only  when  the  child  himself  compre- 
hends the  thought,  which  he  in  turn  gives  to  others 


148  TEACHING:     ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

in  the  form  of  reading.  The  teacher  must  take  great 
pains  to  secure  accuracy  in  producing  every  sound. 
Many  teachers  devote  a  great  deal  of  time  to  phonic 
drill,  which  produces  excellent  results. 

While  the  mechanical  difficulties  are  being  overcome, 
the  content,  or  thought  side  of  reading,  by  far  the  more 
important  feature,  is  also  receiving  due  attention. 
There  is  little  value  in  the  mere  calling  of  words  with- 
out understanding.  If  the  child  catches  the  thought, 
reading  becomes  a  form  of  "telling,"  and  he  will  tell 
the  story  naturally  and  with  good  expression.  Thus 
will  disappear  the  painful  droning  so  common  under 
the  old  methods.  In  order  to  furnish  plenty  of  thought 
material  and  to  keep  children  interested  in  what  they 
read,  there  are  numerous  supplementary  reading  books, 
in  addition  to  the  regular  text-books,  which  are  suitable 
for  the  different  grades,  and  the  purpose  of  which  is 
to  give  practice  in  reading  and  at  the  same  time  to' 
store  the  mind  with  new  ideas.  The  old  method  called 
for  constant  and  painful  repetition  of  the  same  pieces, 
and  consequently  interest  soon  waned.  Publishers 
have  placed  many  of  the  finest  gems  of  literature  in 
suitable  form  and  within  reasonable  cost,  so  that  they 
are  available  for  the  ordinary  classroom.  Thus,  while 
the  child  is  learning  to  read,  he  is  also  storing  his  mind 
with  the  rich  treasures  of  his  mother  tongue  and  begin- 
ning to  acquire  a  good  taste.  Herein  lies  a  great 
opportunity  for  the  teacher.  It  is  as  easy  to  form  good 
habits  in  reading  as  it  is  to  form  bad  ones;  to  create 
a  taste  for  the  pure  and  noble  as  to  create  a  taste  for 
the  vile.  And  the  teacher,  fortunately,  lives  in  an 
age  when  suitable  material  is  abundant.  Children  of 


AIMS   AND   METHODS   IN   READING  149 

a  former  generation  were  obliged  to  read  "  dime- 
novels7'  or  nothing.  Now  they  can  be  offered  just 
as  interesting  stories,  free  from  impure  suggestion  and 
false  notions  of  life,  and  these,  too,  for  a  dime  or  even 
a  nickel.1  Such  reading  will  not  only  furnish  the  child 
with  much  enjoyment,  but  will  also  largely  influence 
his  character.  In  this  early  period,  when  the  memory 
is  quick  and  retentive,  the  child  will  learn  many  gems 
of  literature  which  will  forever  be  a  source  of  joy  and 
intellectual  inspiration. 

To  recapitulate,  then,  the  aim  to  be  sought  in  read- 
ing on  the  formal  side  is  the  ability  to  read  distinctly, 
fluently,  and  with  correct  pronunciation,  inflection, 
emphasis,  and  understanding,  so  as  to  convey  the  mean- 
ing to  others.  Secondly,  on  the  content  side,  it  is 
to  create  a  good  literary  taste  through  the  use  of  the 
works  of  the  great  masters  of  English  and  to  give  some 
knowledge  of  these  works.  These  two  aims  should 
ever  be  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher,  neither  one  neg- 
lected for  the  other  and  both  carried  forward  simul- 
taneously. 

Methods  in  Reading.  — Various  methods  have 
been  employed  in  teaching,  reaching  from  the  old 
ABC  method  to  the  most  modern  scheme.  By  the 
ABC  method  the  child  first  learned  his  letters,  then 
words  of  two  or  three  letters,  then  larger  words.  •  Little 
attention  was  paid  to  the  meaning  of  words;  indeed, 
combinations  were  taught  that  had  no  meaning  what- 
ever, as  ba,  bi,  bo,  bu,  etc.  It  was  mere  form  without 
content,  and  the  children  wearily  droned  over  these 
sounds  monotonously  and  painfully.  No  wonder  that 

1  The  Five-cent  and  Ten-cent  Classics  offer  such  material. 


TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

they  escaped  from  school  whenever  they  could.  In  the 
more  advanced  classes  sometimes  the  teacher  set  the 
class  at  reading  while  he  assisted  the  others  with  their 
sums.  Horace  Mann  showed  the  fallacy  of  the  ABC 
method,  as  we  have  seen,  and  then  followed  the  gradual 
adoption  of  the  word  method  in  which  the  word  is 
taken  as  the  unit.  This  was  an  approach  to  the  truth, 
as  the  child  can  see  and  grasp  a  word  quicker  than  he 
can  comprehend  one  of  the  letters  forming  the  word. 
The  words  selected  were  not  necessarily  confined  to 
those  of  one  syllable  or  short  words,  as  had  been  the 
custom.  It  was  recognized  that  the  child  can  compre- 
hend the  word  "  express-wagon "  as  easily  as  he  can 
comprehend  the  word  "top,"  and  the  selection  in  the 
reading  lesson  was  made  with  reference  to  the  things 
with  which  the  child  is  familiar.  The  word  was  illus- 
trated by  objects  or  pictures,  the  wonderful  advance 
in  the  art  of  pictorial  illustration  being  freely  utilized. 

The  next  step  in  the  historical  development  of  read- 
ing methods  was  the  adoption  of  the  sentence  as  the 
unit,  as  it  was  recognized  that  one  in  reading  does 
not  look  at  the  letters  that  comprise  the  words,  nor 
at  the  words  themselves  necessarily,  but  at  the  sen- 
tence as  a  whole,  which  conveys  the  thought.  It  is 
the  thought  that  is  sought  in  reading,  and  one  does 
not  stop  to  look  at  the  words  unless  they  are  unusual 
or  unknown.  In  this  case  the  reader  must  give  atten- 
tion to  the  individual  word,  must  spell  it,  analyze  it, 
and  seek  its  meaning.  Hence  he  must  know  his  letters, 
must  be  taught  syllabication  and  made  familiar  with 
roots.  With  the  sentence  grasped  as  a  whole,  atten- 
tion may  be  given  to  the  thought-content,  which 


AIMS  AND   METHODS   IN  READING  151 

we  have  seen  is  the  important  feature  of  reading,  the 
expression  becomes  natural  and  easy,  and  the  old-time 
monotonous  calling  of  words  without  regard  to  sense 
disappears.  No  method  of  reading  is  good  that  fails 
to  have  as  its  supreme  purpose  the  gaining  of  thought. 
It  may  be  confidently  asserted  that  if  the  child  has 
the  thought,  the  expression  will  largely  take  care  of 
itself,  and  reading  will  be  to  the  child  mere  "  telling," 
as  already  shown. 

General  Suggestions.  —  It  is  not  the  purpose  here  to 
exploit  any  of  the  modern  systems  of  reading  that  are 
offered  to  teachers.  I  am  endeavoring  to  establish 
fundamental  principles  which  must  be  followed,  what- 
ever system  of  reading  may  be  adopted.  A  few  general 
suggestions,  however,  may  be  offered. 

i .  Clearness.  -  -  There  should  be  continual  practice 
to  secure  accurate  and  clear  pronunciation.  The 
vowels  and  the  consonants,  and  the  combinations  of 
both,  should  have  constant  drill.  An  English  father 
who  was  wholly  unconscious  of  his  use  of  the  letter 
"h,"  heard  his  children  practicing  the  vowels  and, 
consonants  from  their  school  work  in  phonics,  and  for 
the  first  time  he  recognized  his  faulty  pronunciation. 
After  a  little  practice  of  the  same  work  that  his  chil- 
dren were  doing,  he  fully  cured  himself  of  his  defect. 

Repeated  drills,  constant  correction,  and  everlasting 
repetition  secure  wonderful  accuracy  of  pronunciation 
and  clearness  of  speech.  This  is  the  key  to  success  in 
reading  from  the  standpoint  of  form. 

Especial  care  should  be  taken  to  correct  provincial- 
isms. Such  atrocious  pronunciations  as  "caow,"  for 
cow,  "haow,"  for  how,  "raound,"  for  round,  and  the 


152  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

flat  "a"  in  such  words  as  have,  dance,  fancy,  etc., 
should  be  rigidly  corrected.  The  teacher  has  a  duty 
in  this  respect  which  has  been  quite  inadequately 
appreciated.  Our  striking  provincial  pronunciations 
often  subject  Americans  to  ridicule.  This  evil  can  be 
corrected  if  the  great  body  of  teachers  will  seriously 
take  it  in  hand,  for  the  teacher  shapes  the  future  of 
any  people.  "It  is  the  school  master  that  has  won 
our  victories, "  declared  von  Moltke  after  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war,  and  surely  upon  him  rests  the  responsi- 
bility of  teaching  correct  expression. 

2.  Naturalness.  —  We   have    seen    that    the    child   is 
likely  to  read  naturally  if  he  understands  the  thought. 
In  order  to  give  him  the  thought,  show  him  an  object 
or   picture   and   lead   him   to   talk   about  it.     Modern 
reading  books  are  wonderfully  adapted  to  the  work  of 
furnishing  subject-matter  that  children  can  understand 
and  talk  about.     It  is  a  long  step  from   the   "Orbis 
Pictus"    of    Comenius    to    the    beautifully   illustrated 
reading  book  of  today.     It  is  easy  to   lead   the  child 
to  understand  that  the  word   "boy"   placed    beneath 
the  picture  of  a  boy  is  only  another  means  of  represent- 
ing the  idea.     He  can   also  be  led   to   tell   the   story 
suggested   by   the   picture   in   the   words   of   the   book 
which  he  is  reading.     There  is  little  likelihood  of  the 
child 's  being  unnatural  if  he  has  caught  the  thought. 

3.  Accuracy.  —  The  child  should  not  be  allowed   to 
guess  or  recite  from  memory.     I  have  known  children 
to  read  from  a  book,  page  after  page  of  material  that 
they   have   been   over   several   times,    and   they   could 
"read'7  just  as  well  with  the  book  upside  down.     The 
pictures  aided  them  to  remember  what  the  page  con- 


AIMS   AND   METHODS   IN   READING  153 

tained,  and  they  glibly  recited  from  memory  without 
reading  at  all.  To  correct  this  the  teacher  must  have 
some  mechanical  drill-work,  such  as  picking  out  sep- 
arate words  or  sentences  to  test  what  the  child  really 
knows.  The  employment  of  supplementary  reading 
books,  so  that  the  child  is  not  obliged  to  go  over  the 
same  work  until  he  has  learned  it  by  heart,  is  the  best 
means  of  preventing  this  tendency. 

4.  Selection  of  material. --Text-books  in  reading  are 
admirably    meeting    the     demand    for    suitable    mate- 
rial.   They  are  properly  arranged  and  well  illustrated. 
They  are  offering  to  children  the  gems  of  English,  put 
into  such  form  and  so  adapted  as  to  meet  the  needs 
of  the  various  ages.     From  children's  stories,  suited  to 
the  primary  grades,  the  child  is  led  step  by  step  into 
the   realms   of   the   best   literature   that   the   language 
contains.     In  this  field   the   teacher  of  reading  has  a 
wonderful  opportunity  to  store  the  minds  of  her  pupils 
with    beautiful    thoughts    and    noble    ideals.     It    has 
already   been    shown    that   there   is   an   abundance   of 
such  material,  and  these  books  should  be  freely  placed 
into  the  children 's  hands,  in  order  that  they  may  exer- 
cise their  newly-acquired  attainment.     In  all  the  school 
activities  there  is  no  more  efficient  means  of  character- 
building  or  of  preparing   the  human  being  to  appre- 
ciate and  enjoy  life  than  that  which  reading  furnishes. 

5.  Training  in  thinking.  —  The  child  learns    to    read 
in   order   that  he  may   think.     For   this   reason  much 
stress  must  be  laid  upon  the  content  side  of  reading, 
and  yet  the  formal  side  must  not  be  neglected.     We 
repeat   that   the    child   must   be   able   to   read   intelli- 
gibly, so  that  others  can  understand.     But  one  reads 


154  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

aloud  comparatively  little.  Most  of  one's  reading  is 
for  the  purpose  of  gaining  the  thought.  Therefore 
the  essential  work  of  reading  is  to  train  in  thought- 
getting.  In  the  early  stages  the  child  should  be  taught 
to  scan  the  sentence  from  beginning  to  end  to  get  its 
meaning,  and  when  he  is  Veady  to  render  it  he  should 
not  be  interrupted  till  he  is  through.  Interruptions 
are  likely  to  attract  attention  to  mere  form,  while  the 
object  is  to  get  the  content.  Let  the  criticisms  and 
suggestions  come  at  the  end,  so  as  not  to  disturb  the 
continuity  of  thought.  I  have  seen  a  reading  exercise 
in  which  each  pupil  read  until  he  made  a  mistake, 
which  was  promptly  corrected  by  his  classmates, 
and  then  another  read  on  from  that  point.  Of  course 
this  was  a  mere  formal  exercise  without  a  particle  of 
thinking. 

In  conclusion,  let  me  repeat  that  reading  is  the  most 
important  subject  of  the  school  course,  that  it  should 
be  most  interesting  and  fruitful,  and  that  great  care 
should  be  exercised  both  in  the  choice  of  material  and 
in  the  best  method  of  presenting  it.  "To  teach  a 
child  to  read,  and  not  teach  it  what  to  read,  is  to  put 
a  dangerous  weapon  into  its  hands/ '  says  Charles 
Dudley  Warner. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  TEACHING  OF  SPELLING 

Place  of  Spelling  in  the  School.  — The  English  lan- 
guage presents  many  difficulties  in  its  orthography, 
because  of  its  unphonetic  character.  Hence  the  school 
has  a  burdensome  and  yet  most  important  duty  to 
perform.  Criticism  of  the  modern  school  falls  most 
heavily  upon  spelling,  because  errors  in  it  are  so  appar- 
ent, and  because  its  use  is  so  frequent  and  necessary. 
I  have  already  shown  that  there  is  less  reason  for  such 
criticism  than  many  would  think.  Nothing,  however, 
is  so  inexcusable  in  written  composition  as  poor  spelling. 
No  apology  for  the  work  of  the  school  will  suffice  if 
it  fails  to  teach  the  children  to  spell. 

A  few  years  ago  the  exclusion  of  the  spelling  book 
from  the  schools  was  advocated  by  educational  re- 
formers on  the  ground  that  many  of  the  words  found 
therein  are  but  little  used,  and  that  isolated  words 
without  definitions  do  not  become  a  part  of  one's 
usable  vocabulary.  It  was  urged  that  the  child's 
spelling  lessons  should  be  selected  from  his  reading 
book,  arithmetic,  grammar,  etc.,  and  from  life,  and  that 
he  should  be  required  to  spell  only  the  words  he  uses. 
No  doubt  there  was  much  to  commend  in  the  reforms 
proposed.  There  is  little  use  in  giving  pupils  words 
beyond  their  understanding,  outside  of  their  environ- 
ment, and  of  no  practical  value  to  them.  It  was  also 


156  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

urged  that  formal  spelling  lessons  are  unnecessary, 
that  the  child  should  learn  to  spell  in  connection  with 
his  other  lessons  and  thus  build  up  a  vocabulary  of 
his  own  which  he  would  unconsciously  spell  correctly. 

It  was  found  as  a  result  of  this  reform  that  spell- 
ing lacked  system,  that  it  was  side-tracked  for  other 
subjects  that  had  a  fixed  place  in  the  curriculum  and 
therefore  received  too  little  attention,  that  it  was 
difficult  for  the  teacher  to  select  the  right  words,  and 
that  the  children  were  not  learning  to  spell.  Conse- 
quently a  reaction  set  in,  and  while  the  new  methods 
of  spelling  were  retained,  a  modernized  spelling  book 
was  introduced  which  seeks  to  present  in  a  systematized 
form  the  words  essential  and  appropriate  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  vocabulary  of  the  child.  It  became  evident 
that  spelling  must  have  a  place  in  the  program  of  work, 
that  it  cannot  be  merely  incidental,  and  that  it  must 
be  considered  as  a  serious  matter.  I  shall  try  to  indi- 
cate the  means  by  which  this  important  subject  can 
be  made  to  meet  modern  requirements. 

Aims  in  Teaching  Spelling.  —  The  aim  sought  is  to 
give  the  child  the  ability  to  spell  such  words  as  he  will 
employ  in  letter-writing,  composition,  or  business 
practices.  While  occasionally  he  may  be  called  upon 
to  spell  words  orally  that  he  would  not  commonly  use, 
and  while  it  may  add  to  his  satisfaction  to  be  able 
to  meet  such  tests,  the  school  cannot  be  required  to 
provide  for  such  remote  contingencies.  If  the  school 
succeeds  in  training  its  pupils  to  spell  accurately  such 
words  as  they  will  use  in  any  kind  of  original  composi- 
tion, or  in  taking  ordinary  dictation,  I  think  it  will 
have  met  all  just  requirements  in  spelling. 


THE   TEACHING   OF   SPELLING  157 

Methods  and  Devices.  —  Spelling  is  largely  a 
memory  exercise.  This  must  not  be  lost  sight  of,  what- 
ever method  be  employed.  That  which  best  fixes  the 
form  of  the  word  in  the  child's  mind  is  the  best  method. 
A  teacher  of  fourth  grade  pupils  almost  entirely  of 
foreign  parentage,  —  Germans,  Swedes,  Danes,  Hun- 
garians, and  Italians,  —  who  heard  no  English  at  home, 
secured  remarkable  results  by  the  following  method: 
She  selected  twenty  words  each  day  from  the  spelling 
book  and  from  other  sources,  placed  them  on  the  black- 
board plainly  written,  explained  their  meaning,  pro- 
nounced them,  and  required  the  children  to  pronounce 
them  after  her,  calling  attention  to  any  peculiarities 
of  the  words.  After  thus  going  over  the  list  several 
times,  she  had  the  pupils  copy  it.  By  this  practice 
she  appealed  to  the  ear-minded  and  eye-minded  as  well. 
This  is  important,  for  some  people  catch  a  word  by 
seeing  it  and  others  by  hearing  it  expressed.  She 
required  the  words  to  be  written  both  separately  and 
in  sentences,  to  prove  that  the  children  had  grasped 
their  meaning.  Previous  lessons  were  frequently  re- 
viewed, so  that  the  words  might  not  be  forgotten. 
In  spite  of  the  handicaps  of  a  scant  knowledge  of  Eng- 
lish and  no  help  at  home,  the  children  rarely  missed 
in  spelling.  There  were  forty  children  in  the  class, 
who  were  given  twenty  words  a  day,  or  a  total  of  4000 
words  per  week,  and  usually  there  were  not  more  than 
four  or  five  misspelled  words  out  of  this  number.  In 
the  reviews  the  children  were  called  upon  to  use  the 
words  in  sentences,  which  was  a  good  test  not  only  of 
the  spelling  but  also  of  their  comprehension  of  meanings 
of  the  words. 


158  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

The  following  suggestions  are  offered  to  aid  in  teach- 
ing spelling: 

1.  Written  and  oral  work.  —  A  large  part  of  the  time 
should  be  devoted  to  written  work,  for  the  reason  that 
nearly  all  the  practical  use  of  spelling  is  in  the  form  of 
composition.     The   dictation  of    the    lesson   should  be 
both  written  and  oral,  in  order  to  meet  the  needs  of 
the    eye-minded    and    the    ear-minded.     Oral    spelling, 
however,    should   not   be   neglected.     There   are   occa- 
sions —  rare,  it  is  true  —  when  it  is  important  to  be  able 
to  spell  orally.     It  is  well  occasionally  to  have  a  spell- 
ing match,  to  allow  the  pupils  to  choose  sides,  to  "  spell 
down/'  and  to  employ  other  devices  in  order  to  stimu- 
late   enthusiasm    for   spelling    and    awaken    a    healthy 
rivalry  among  the  pupils.     These  contests  are  enjoyed 
by  children,  and  they  aid  in  teaching  oral  spelling.     In 
the  written  work  the  writing  must  be  very  plain  and 
legible,   the  pupil  being  charged   with   an   error   when 
there  is  doubt  as  to  the  letter  used.     The  papers  should 
be  corrected  by  the  teacher,   the  errors  marked,   and 
individual  attention  called  to  them  later. 

2.  System.  —  While  words  from  other  lessons  should 
be  taught,   there  should    be  a  systematic   teaching  of 
spelling,  such  as  is  outlined  in  a  text-book  on  the  sub- 
ject.    Spelling  must  have  a  regular  place  in  the  daily 
program  and  should  not  be  treated  as  incidental.     It 
should    be    taught    in    connection    with    every    school 
exercise,  but  should  have  also  a  specific  place  for  itself. 

3.  Drill.  --The    teacher    must    go    over    the   words 
time  and  again,  until  the  impression  of  them  is  thor- 
oughly  fixed.      Especial   attention   should  be  given  to 
difficult  and  unusual  words,  and  to  those  that  are  often 


THE   TEACHING   OF   SPELLING  159 

misspelled.     Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  upon 
frequent  drill. 

4.  Rules.  —  A    few    simple     rules     may    be  helpful, 
especially  to  older  children,  but  little  dependence  can 
be  put  upon  them  to  make  good  spellers.     To  apply 
them  requires  good  judgment,  and  there  are  too  many 
exceptions  for  the  child  to  remember.     Any  text-book 
on  spelling  will  offer  such  rules  as  the  teacher  may  deem 
advisable  to  employ. 

5.  Capitals   and   syllabication.  —  The   use    of   capitals 
should  be  emphasized,  and  the  child  should  be  carefully 
taught  how  to  divide  words  into  their  proper  syllables, 
especially  at  the  end  of  a  line  in  composition.     Word 
analysis,  with  its  treatment  of  roots,  derivations,  pre- 
fixes,  suffixes,   etc.,  is  a  great  aid  in  the  teaching  of 
spelling. 

6.  Composition.  —  The  best  test  of  spelling  is  found 
in  its  use  in  composition.     Hence  the  most  of  the  work 
should  consist  in  sentence  or  composition  writing.     It 
is  of  little  use  for  a  person  to  be  able  to  spell  a  word 
individually  if  he  cannot  properly  employ  it  in  letter- 
writing  or  other  composition. 

7.  The  dictionary.  —  The  child  should  be  taught  early 
how  to  use  the  dictionary  and  how  to  seek   its    help 
in   finding   the   spelling   or   meaning   of    a   word.     By 
its    use    the    inherently    weak    speller    may    overcome 
this  defect.     A  young  man  who  was  seeking  advance- 
ment in  the  army  was  seriously  handicapped  by  his 
poor  spelling.     He  was  not  sure  of  himself  with  the 
most    common    and    simple    words.     He    purchased    a 
pocket  dictionary  and  systematically  looked  up  every 
doubtful  word  that  he  wished  to  use.     It  was  not  long 


160  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

before  he  overcame  his  weakness  and  successfully 
passed  the  required  examination. 

The  Spelling-Bee.  —  Among  the  historic  educational 
practices  of  the  past,  the  spelling-bee  stands  out 
most  prominently.  With  so  few  entertainments  to 
attract  people,  under  the  primitive  conditions  of  country 
life,  the  announcement  of  a  spelling-bee  was  sure  to 
attract  all  the  people  that  the  schoolhouse  could  hold. 
Sides  were  chosen  of  such  as  would  consent  to  spell, 
and  the  contestants  were  not  by  any  means  limited 
to  the  school  children.  Anyone  could  enter  the  lists 
who  would.  Words  were  given  from  side  to  side  alter- 
nately, and  if  a  word  were  missed  and  correctly  spelled 
on  the  opposing  side,  a  speller  could  be  chosen  over 
to  the  winning  side.  This  continued  until  one  side 
was  victor.  After  this  all  stood  up  in  a  line  to  "  spell 
down,"  and  he  who  was  the  last  to  succumb  to  a  hard 
word  was  the  hero  of  the  evening.  It  was  a  mere 
memory  test,  as  no  meanings  of  words  were  given  ex- 
cepting when  two  words  of  different  meanings  had  the 
same  pronunciation,  as  in  the  case  of  "pair,*1  a  couple, 
and  "pear,"  a  fruit.  Probably  the  chief  good  of  these 
meetings  was  the  amusement  they  afforded,  rather  than 
as  a  means  of  teaching  spelling.  For  oral  spelling  has 
but  little  use  in  life,  and  many  of  the  words  given  out 
were  such  as  one  would  never  use. 

But  there  has  been  a  revival  of  the  spelling-bee  in 
many  parts  of  the  country  in  which  the  old  people 
have  been  pitted  against  the  children  of  the  schools; 
and  although  the  latter  were  meeting  the  former  on 
their  familiar  ground,  I  do  not  know  of  an  instance  in 
which  the  children  have  not  been  victors. 


THE   TEACHING   OF   SPELLING  l6l 

The  best  test  of  spelling,  I  repeat,  is  found  in  writing. 
One  has  only  to  read  old  letters  or  documents  to  dis- 
cover that  this  much  vaunted  gift  was  lacking  in  early 
times  and  that  our  forefathers  were  not  good  spellers. 
But  this  revival  of  the  spelling-bee  no  doubt  will  aid 
materially  in  making  better  spellers,  especially  orally. 

As  a  final  word,  let  me  say  that  there  is  no  excuse 
for  poor  spelling,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to 
send  forth  her  pupils  possessing  this  primary  and 
essential  qualification  for  life.  If  the  school  fails  to 
do  this,  criticism  of  its  work  is  entirely  just  and 
wholesome. 


CHAPTER   XI 

TRAINING  IN  LANGUAGE 

Influence  of  the  Environment.  —  It  is  claimed  by 
many  that  if  the  child  is  brought  up  in  an  environment 
where  only  correct  English  is  used  he  will  not  need  to 
study  formal  grammar.  Undoubtedly  such  an  experi- 
ence is  of  great  aid,  but  comparatively  few  homes 
furnish  such  a  condition.  Even  if  the  home  is  all  that 
could  be  desired  as  an  environment  for  children,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  they  associate  with  other 
children  and  must  mingle  with  the  world.  In  these 
associations  naturally  children  will  absorb  incorrect 
forms  of  speech,  in  spite  of  the  most  careful  home 
training.  While  the  power  properly  to  use  one's 
mother  tongue  in  speaking  and  writing,  and  that  un- 
consciously, is  of  highest  importance  as  an  educational 
asset,  this  does  not  suffice, —  one  must  know  why  an 
expression  is  right  or  wrong.  Address  a  child  of 
foreign  parentage  in  the  language  of  his  forefathers,  and 
it  is  very  seldom  that  he  will  reply  in  that  tongue. 
Possibly  he  is  ashamed  of  his  ancestry  and  does  not 
want  to  be  known  as  German,  Italian,  or  Slav;  nor 
is  he  sure  of  the  purity  of  the  language  of  his  home. 
He  has  not  studied  its  grammar,  does  not  know  what  is 
correct,  and  consequently  he  will  not  use  the  language 
which  he  readily  understands  and  speaks  at  home  but 
of  the  correctness  of  which  he  is  not  sure.  The  high 


TRAINING   IN   LANGUAGE  163 

school  student  that  has  had  a  year  or  two  of  German 
will  not  hesitate  to  show  his  knowledge  of  that  lan- 
guage when  opportunity  offers,  because  he  has  the  con- 
fidence given  by  a  scientific  training  in  the  grammar  of 
that  tongue.  Therefore,  even  if  the  child  has  been 
accustomed  to  speak  correctly  at  home,  he  must  have 
training  in  grammatical  forms. 

The  fundamentals  of  language  must  be  taught;  that 
is,  the  child  must  know  grammar  as  the  basis  of 
his  English.  Such  knowledge  will  doubly  fortify  him, 
both  in  speech  and  in  written  composition.  Of  course 
the  teacher  must  be  vigilant,  in  season  and  out  of 
season,  in  every  subject  taught,  and  from  the  very 
outset  of  the  school  course,  to  secure  the  habitual 
use  of  good  English.  Eternal  vigilance,  constant  atten- 
tion, and  patient  correction  of  false  expressions,  when- 
ever seen  or  heard,  should  be  the  watchword  of  the 
teacher.  Landon  says,  "The  study  of  grammar  brings 
into  relief  and  fixes  in  the  pupil's  mind  a  standard  of 
accurate  usage,  fortifies  him  against  the  influence  of 
bad  examples  by  making  clear  the  nature  of  wrong 
forms  and  faulty  constructions,  and  renders  his  imita- 
tion of  what  is  correct  more  certain,  rapid,  and  in- 
telligent." Grammar  is  not  only  essential  to  the 
understanding  and  use  of  language,  but  it  has  also  a 
great  disciplinary  value.  It  is  educational  as  well  as 
utilitarian. 

Aims  in  Language  Training.  —  What  is  the  aim  to 
be  sought  in  language  teaching?  In  general,  the  an- 
swer would  be  that  the  aim  is  to  establish  the  power  to 
use  the  English  tongue  habitually,  fluently,  and  accu- 
rately, both  in  speaking  and  in  writing.  This  power 


1 64  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

should  become  so  completely  habitual  that  even  under 
unusual  circumstances,  such  as  examinations,  tests, 
etc.,  correct  language  will  unconsciously  be  employed. 
A  second  aim  will  in  a  measure  be  sought,  namely, 
that  of  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  language  itself, 
and  of  the  principles  governing  its  formation.  This 
aim  can  be  reached  to  a  considerable  extent  only  with 
advanced  students,  especially  students  of  philology. 
Hence  the  study  of  formal  grammar  should  not  be 
undertaken  too  early.  Judgment  and  logical  power 
are  necessary  to  an  understanding  of  this  subject,  and 
these  powers  develop  in  the  late  grammar  grades. 

Methods.  —  When  the  child  enters  school  at  six 
years  of  age,  he  possesses  a  vocabulary  of  five  or  six 
hundred  words,  depending  upon  his  early  environment 
and  his  natural  intelligence.  The  school  must  increase 
this  vocabulary  and  teach  its  fluent  and  proper  use. 
This  is  done  by  introducing  suitable  material  and  by 
calling  upon  the  pupils  for  the  expression  of  it  in  both 
oral  and  written  form.  It  must  be  largely  oral  at  first, 
the  children  being  encouraged  to  tell  stories  and  to 
dramatize.  Modern  schools  are  taking  advantage  of 
the  natural  tendency  of  children  to  act  out  their  ideas 
in  the  form  of  a  play  or  drama.  It  proves  a  very 
fertile  means  of  awakening  interest  in  reading  and  in 
language  work  as  well.  There  should  be  very  little 
writing  by  pupils  in  the  first  year  or  two.  Indeed, 
some  critics  believe  that  the  children  are  given  too 
much  writing  all  through  the  elementary  school. 

Language  Lessons.  —  White  remarks  that  "All  lan- 
guage training  may  be  so  united  with  the  other  exer- 
cises of  the  school,  as  to  be  a  part  of  them,  thus 


TRAINING   IN   LANGUAGE  165 

practically  realizing  the  principle  of  concentration.  This 
union  is  eminently  practicable  in  the  exercises  in  read- 
ing; the  exercises  in  expression  affording  material  for 
reading,  and  the  development  of  reading  lessons  afford- 
ing fine  practice  in  oral  expression.  Indeed,  the  telling 
of  what  one  knows  and  feels  and  the  reading  of  thought 
and  feeling  expressed  in  written  language  are  but  dif- 
ferent phases  of  the  same  mental  process."  He  further 
adds,  "Every  exercise  of  the  primary  school  that  leads 
to  knowledge  properly  ends  in  the  expression  of  such 
knowledge  by  the  pupils.  This  is  true  of  the  lessons 
in  nature,  on  human  life,  morals  and  manners,  etc. 
When  training  in  expression  is  the  end,  it  is  a  mistake 
to  let  even  the  story-exercise  end  with  the  telling  of 
the  story  by  the  teacher.  This  may  interest  and  please 
the  pupils,  may  make  a  desired  impression,  but  the 
vital  matter  is  reached  when  the  story  is  related  by  the 
pupils.  It  is  what  the  children  can  tell  that  is  evidence 
of  real  appropriation." 

Realizing  the  importance  of  connecting  language 
work  with  every  school  exercise,  some  urge  that  this 
will  suffice,  and  that  therefore  there  is  no  need  of  formal 
language  work.  Upon  this  point  I  quote  again  from 
Dr.  White.  "The  art  of  language  is  more  difficult 
than  reading  or  numerical  computation,  and  it  should 
certainly  have  as  large  a  place  in  the  elementary  school. 
//  should  be  a  daily  exercise.  .  .  .  What  is  needed  is 
both  incidental  and  regular  training  in  expression,  con- 
scientious language  training  all  along  the  line.  There 
is  no  danger  that  the  important  art  of  language  will 
receive  too  much  attention  in  school  training. " 

There  is   abundance  of  material  at  hand  which  is 


1 66  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

easy  to  adapt  to  the  language  work.  Nature  study, 
stories  from  the  Bible,  history  and  mythology,  fairy 
tales,  songs,  poems,  pictures,  biographies,  and  the  great 
variety  of  objects  at  hand  offer  an  abundance  of  inter- 
esting material.  Unfamiliar  expressions  should  be 
avoided.  The  child  should  be  allowed  both  to  tell  and 
to  write.  Composition  will  cease  to  be  a  bugbear  if 
the  pupil  is  allowed  to  write  concerning  a  subject  of 
which  he  knows  something.  To  require  a  child  to 
write  on  " Virtue,"  "Patience,"  "Perseverance,"  "Hap- 
piness," or  other  abstract  themes,  is  to  make  him 
hate  composition.  Let  him  describe  "A  trip  into  the 
Country,"  "What  I  saw  at  the  Fair,"  "A  Picnic," 
or  some  other  event  or  thing  that  has  come  within  his 
experience,  and  he  will  love  composition,  for  children 
love  to  tell  what  they  know.  Descriptions  of  animals, 
objects,  and  events  not  only  serve  as  material  for 
composition,  but  also  tend  to  cultivate  the  power  of 
accurate  observation.  Letter-writing  with  punctuation, 
capitalization,  correct  forms,  accurate  spelling  and 
construction,  should  be  emphasized  at  this  stage. 
Dramatization  will  furnish  fertile  and  interesting 
material  for  both  oral  and  written  expression. 

By  these  means  the  child  will  extend  his  vocabulary, 
enlarge  his  scope  of  ideas,  and  learn  to  use  language 
correctly  and  fluently.  Here  again  is  the  celebrated 
aphorism  of  Comenius  -  "We  learn  to  do  by  doing" 
—  justified  and  illustrated.  The  child  will  also  gain 
some  insight  into  the  simpler  forms  of  grammar,  such 
as  the  parts  of  speech  and  the  construction  of  simple 
sentences.  Nor  should  the  teacher  hesitate  to  use  the 
common  grammatical  terms.  The  child  can  learn  to 


TRAINING   IN   LANGUAGE  167 

employ  the  term  noun  as  easily  as  he  can  learn  to 
employ  the  term  name-word,  the  term  verb  as  easily  as 
action-word. 

Grammar.  —  Spencer  declares,  "As  grammar  was 
made  after  language,  so  ought  it  to  be  taught  after 
language."  Dr.  White  is  of  the  opinion  that  " English 
grammar  has  an  important  function  in  school  training, 
and  no  other  study  can  take  its  place."  The  purpose 
of  grammar  is  to  furnish  a  standard  whereby  one  may 
be  sure  as  to  the  correctness  of  the  English  employed, 
whether  spoken  or  written,  and  to  systematize  the 
forms  of  language,  to  develop  the  power  of  analytical 
judgment,  to  discipline  the  intellectual  powers.  Much 
of  grammar  is  abstract,  and  therefore  the  study  leads 
the  pupil  to  abstract  reasoning,  the  goal  of  educational 
endeavor.  Because  it  is  so  largely  abstract  it  is 
obvious  that  formal  grammar  should  not  be  introduced 
too  early  in  the  school  course. 

The  inductive  method  should  be  employed  in  teach- 
ing grammar;  that  is,  the  child  should  be  led  up  to 
the  rule  through  many  examples.  When  the  rule  is 
comprehended,  it  should  be  committed  to  memory. 
We  are  governed  largely  by  rules  of  life  if  we  are  men 
of  established  habits,  and  in  our  intellectual  life  also 
it  is  well  that  we  should  be  fortified  with  rules  which 
summarize  the  truths  that  we  possess  and  have  assimi- 
lated. 

Sentences  should  be  constructed  not  only  to  illustrate 
the  rule,  but  they  should  also  be  analyzed  and  the 
application  of  the  rule  pointed  out.  Perhaps  too  great 
stress  in  former  times  was  laid  upon  parsing.  There  is 
no  doubt,  however,  that  it  did  fix  the  parts  of  speech 


1 68  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

and  their  relation  to  the  sentence  as  a  whole  in  the 
minds  of  the  pupils.  It  required  a  constant  applica- 
tion of  rules,  as  every  exercise  closed  with,  "  According 
to  the  rule  which  says,"  etc.  The  pupil  will  now  have 
a  text-book  on  grammar  in  his  hands,  and  under  the 
wise  direction  of  his  teacher  should  find  the  subject 
interesting  and  profitable,  thus  acquiring  the  ability 
to  use  his  mother  tongue  correctly,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  becoming  familiar  with  its  fundamental  principles 
while  gaining  a  fluent  mastery  of  it. 

Composition.  —  I  have  already  touched  upon  composi- 
tion in  the  treatment  of  language  lessons.  It  must  go 
hand  in  hand  with  both  language  lessons  and  grammar. 
Landon  clearly  shows  the  purpose  of  composition  in 
these  words:  'The  teaching  of  composition  in  school 
should  be  directed  to  secure  the  writing  of  plain  straight- 
forward English  prose,  free  from  error  or  obscurity." 
Naturalness,  simplicity,  correctness,  clearness,  and 
force  are  the  ends  to  be  sought.  All  compositions 
should  be  carefully  criticised  by  the  teacher,  and  if 
possible  discussed  individually  with  the  pupils.  Such 
criticism  should  be  of  great  value  to  the  pupil.  Indeed, 
composition  work  without  such  individual  criticism 
largely  loses  its  efficiency. 

As  a  final  word,  let  me  say  the  training  in  language 
should  seek  to  give  a  fluent,  accurate,  and  easy  style, 
both  in  writing  and  in  speaking,  and  it  is  therefore 
one  of  the  most  practical  subjects  taught  in  the  whole 
curriculum. 


CHAPTER  XII 

GEOGRAPHY  TEACHING 

Scope  of  the  Subject.  —  In  the  old  text-books  geog- 
raphy was  defined  as  a  description  of  the  earth's  surface. 
Consequently  chief  attention  was  given  to  fixing  and 
memorizing  the  location  on  the  map  of  rivers,  bays, 
lakes,  mountains,  cities,  etc.  A  truer  conception  of 
geography  views  the  earth  as  the  home  of  man,  and 
emphasizes  man  in  his  relation  to  his  environment  as 
the  central  thought.  "According  to  the  definition  of 
geography,  which  treats  of  the  relation  between  man 
and  the  earth,  a  hill  or  a  lake  is  worthy  of  mention 
only  because  it  bears  a  relation  to  us,  the  men  upon 
the  earth;  considered  by  itself  it  is  not  a  part  of  geog- 
raphy. "  Since  man  in  his  relation  to  his  surroundings 
is  the  central  idea,  it  becomes  clear  that  home  geog- 
raphy, the  things  immediately  at  hand,  must  be  studied 
first.  In  that  educational  classic,  "The  Report  of  the 
Committee  of  Fifteen,"  this  matter  is  stated  so  com- 
pletely that  I  quote  in  full:  "The  child  commences 
with  what  is  nearest  to  his  interests,  and  proceeds 
gradually  towards  what  is  to  be  studied  for  its  own 
sake.  It  is  therefore  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the 
first  phase  of  geography  presented  to  the  child  should 
be  the  process  of  continent  formation.  He  must  begin 
with  the  natural  differences  of  climate  and  lands,  and 
waters,  and  obstacles  that  separate  peoples,  and  study 


170  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

the  methods  by  which  man  strives  to  equalize  or 
overcome  these  difficulties  by  industry  and  commerce, 
and  make  it  possible  for  each  to  share  in  the  produc- 
tions of  all.  The  industrial  and  commercial  idea  is 
therefore  the  central  idea  in  the  study  of  geography  in 
the  elementary  schools.  It  leads  directly  to  the  natural 
elements  of  difference  in  climate,  soil,  and  productions, 
and  also  to  those  in  race,  religion,  and  political  status, 
and  occupations  of  inhabitants,  with  a  view  to  explain- 
ing the  grounds  and  reasons  for  this  counter-process  of 
civilization  which  struggles  to  overcome  the  differences. 
Next  comes  the  deeper  inquiry  into  the  process  of 
continent  formation,  the  physical  struggle  between 
the  process  of  upholding  or  upbuilding  of  continents 
and  that  of  their  obliteration  by  air  and  water;  the 
explanation  of  mountains,  valleys,  and  plains,  volcanic 
action,  and  the  rain  distribution.  But  the  study  of 
cities,  their  location,  the  purposes  they  serve  as  collect- 
ing, manufacturing,  and  distributing  centers,  leads 
most  directly  to  the  immediate  purpose  of  geography 
in  the  elementary  school. " 

Aims  in  Teaching  Geography.  —  In  the  foregoing 
statement  we  find  the  aim  in  the  study  of  geography 
outlined.  A  further  consideration  may,  however,  be 
profitable.  President  Butler  says,  "As  a  bridge  over 
which  to  pass  backward  and  forward  from  the  study 
of  man's  habitat  to  his  activities  and  his  limitations, 
and  back  again,  geography  is  a  unique  and  indis- 
pensable element  of  an  elementary  education.  So 
treated,  it  is  excelled  in  suggestiveness  by  none  of  its 
companion  studies. " 

Dr.   McMurry,   in    his    " Special   Method    in    Geog- 


GEOGRAPHY  TEACHING  1 71 

raphy,"  marks  out  a  distinctly  geographical  course 
from  the  third  grade  on.  He  remarks  that  "  Geog- 
raphy from  the  beginning  deals  with  a  very  interesting 
and  valuable  series  of  topics  which  the  separate  sciences 
do  not  attempt  to  treat.  Geography  has  the  double 
interest  which  attaches  to  natural  objects  and  human 
beings.  It  deals  with  people  in  the  midst  of  their 
physical,  social,  industrial,  and  political  surroundings. 
Geography  studies  should  be  intensely  practical  and 
social  in  their  influence,  because  in  the  industrial  and 
commercial  pursuits  men  are  producing  and  distrib- 
uting those  articles  of  mutual  interchange  and  accom- 
modation by  which  they  get  better  acquainted  and 
learn  to  depend  upon  one  another." 

He    further    suggests    the    following   plan   of   study: 

(A)  "Home  geography,  with  its  excursions  and  varied 
study  of  local  topography,  occupations,  and  social  life. 

(B)  The  leading  topics  of  the  United  States  and  North 
America.     This  is  a  very  interesting  field  of  broad  and 
varied   studies,    illustrating   almost   all  phases   of  geo- 
graphical   knowledge.     (C)    The    important    phases    of 
European    geography.     While    Europe    is    relatively    a 
small  part  of  the  world,  it  has  a  greater  number  of 
valuable  and  instructive  geographical  topics  than  any 
other   continent,    due   to   the   varieties   of  its   physical 
structure,    the    many    distinctly    different   nationalities 
it  exhibits,  and  the  higher  degree  of  excellence  attained 
in  the  arts  of  life.     (D)    The  movement  from  Europe 
outward  into    the  world-whole, — Asia,    Africa,   South 
America,  Australia,  —  and  the  larger  physical  and  com- 
mercial aspects  of  the  whole  world." 

Summarizing,  then,  as  to  the  aim  in  teaching  geog- 


172  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

raphy,  we  would  say  in  general  that  it  should  touch 
upon  those  things  that  have  to  do  with  the  life  of 
man, —  upon  the  products  of  the  soil  and  the  factory; 
upon  transportation  by  land  and  sea;  upon  climate  and 
its  effect  upon  vegetable  growth,  as  well  as  upon  the 
welfare  of  man;  upon  the  natural  resources  in  mines, 
soils,  quarries,  forests,  streams,  etc.;  upon  cities  and 
the  reasons  for  their  location  and  existence;  upon 
forms  of  government  and  their  effect  in  protecting  the 
liberties  and  stimulating  the  enterprise  of  a  people 
and  in  promoting  justice;  and  upon  the  religion  of  a 
people  and  its  power  over  men's  lives  to  lead  to 
righteous  living. 

While  learning  these  things,  the  pupil  will  also  ac- 
quire all  other  necessary  data,  such  as  locations,  bound- 
aries, and  other  geographical  facts.  There  will  be 
no  difficulty  in  correlating  the  work  in  geography  with 
other  subjects  of  the  curriculum. 

Methods  in  Geography  Teaching.  —  Home  geog- 
raphy. —  As  already  suggested,  the  work  in  geography 
begins  with  a  study  of  the  child's  immediate  environ- 
ment. Very  early,  the  child  can  be  taught  the  direc- 
tions, east,  west,  north,  and  south.  Beginning  with 
the  schoolroom  he  becomes  familiar  with  the  points 
of  compass  of  the  schoolgrounds  and  the  immediate 
vicinity.  No  more  important  knowledge  can  be  ac- 
quired than  that  which  prepares  one  to  locate  himself 
upon  either  land  or  sea.  Visitors  in  a  strange  city  or 
country,  as  well  as  sailors  upon  the  ocean,  are  sadly 
handicapped  if  they  are  unable  to  determine  direc- 
tions. A  party  of  boys  from  twelve  to  fourteen  years 
old  from  Stoy's  school  in  Jena  were  making  a  seven 


GEOGRAPHY   TEACHING  173 

days'  tramp  through  the  Luther  country  in  central 
Germany.  One  day  after  marching  through  the 
Thliringian  forest,  so  dense  that  not  a  glimpse  of  the 
sun  had  been  obtained  for  several  hours,  they  came 
into  an  open  space  on  top  of  a  mountain.  The  teacher 
gathered  the  boys  about  him,  took  out  his  watch,  and 
announced  the  time  as  four  P.M.  " Which  way  is 
north? "  he  asked.  The  boys  took  a  look  at  the  sun's 
position  in  the  heavens  and  every  one  pointed  at  once 
to  the  north.  They  then  took  out  their  pocket  maps, 
located  the  place  where  they  stood,  faced  towards 
the  north  holding  their  maps  before  them,  and  were 
able  to  identify  the  cities,  villages,  rivers,  castles, 
mountains,  valleys,  in  the  wonderful  panorama  that  lay 
within  their  vision.  Ability  to  do  this  was  the  most 
important  attainment  they  needed  at  that  moment. 
It  made  them  masters  of  the  situation.  Far  more 
stress  should  be  laid  upon  this  simple  and  yet  most 
important  knowledge  than  is  customary  in  the  Ameri- 
can schools. 

Excursions.  —  In  the  study  of  home  surroundings  it 
is  necessary  to  see  the  thing  to  be  learned.  Too  often 
the  child  gets  his  conception  of  geography  from  the 
text-book  and  maps,  sometimes  even  without  much 
use  of  the  latter.  Some  personal  experiences  may 
illustrate  this  point.  As  a  boy,  I  learned  from  the 
book  that  "A  mountain  is  a  high  elevation  of  land/' 
and  I  could  locate  the  Rockies,  the  Alleghanies,  the 
Catskills,  the  Andes,  upon  the  map.  And  yet,  I  could 
not  look  out  of  a  window  in  that  old  schoolhouse 
in  any  direction  without  being  confronted  with  moun- 
tains; indeed,  I  could  see  a  spur  of  the  very  Catskills 


174  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

that  I  knew  in  the  book.  There  was  not  the  slightest 
association  between  the  book  statements  and  the  real 
mountain.  "A  river  is  a  stream  of  water  flowing 
through  the  land/'  according  to  the  book,  but  that  had 
no  reference  to  the  creek  where  I  fished,  waded,  and 
swam,  and  which  was  a  part  of  the  very  Susquehanna 
that  I  could  easily  locate  on  the  map  but  knew  nothing 
about.  And  so  it  was  with  everything  taught  in  geog- 
raphy. It  was  mere  " recitation"  from  the  book 
without  reference  to  the  real  things  that  we  could 
not  escape  if  our  attention  had  been  guided  and  if 
we  opened  our  eyes  in  any  direction. 

The  excursion  should  not  be  simply  a  wild  picnic. 
It  must  have  a  definite  purpose  for  which  the  pupils 
have  prepared  beforehand.  The  teacher  should  ex- 
plore the  ground  in  advance,  so  as  to  know  just  what 
she  will  find  and  where  to  find  it.  The  children 
should  be  made  familiar  with  the  subject-matter,  so 
that  they  may  be  keen  to  observe  and  quick  to  com- 
prehend the  lessons  the  teacher  desires  them  to  learn. 
They  must  understand  that  they  are  out  for  work  and 
not  for  play.  But  while  there  will  be  plenty  of  en- 
joyment as  they  wander  through  the  fields  and  woods, 
by  the  brooks,  in  the  valley  or  ravine,  in  the  midst  of 
the  glories  of  nature,  yet  there  is  a  definite  purpose 
which  must  not  be  lost  sight  of.  They  are  still  at 
school,  though  their  schoolhouse  is  not  hemmed  in  by 
four  walls  of  plaster,  but  is  boundless  amid  the  beauties 
of  God's  wonderful  nature.  Such  field  trips  should 
yield  an  abundance  of  first-hand  information  which 
later  may  be  worked  over  and  digested  in  many 
exercises  of  the  schoolroom. 


GEOGRAPHY    TEACHING  175 

Dr.  White  aptly  remarks,  "  There  should  be  no  haste 
to  get  the  infant  away  from  his  little  world  of  home. 
Let  him  observe  and  know  its  animals  and  birds,  its 
trees  and  flowers,  the  sunshine,  the  rain,  the  clouds, 
the  winds,  etc.,  before  he  tries  to  fly  beyond  the 
horizon  on  the  poor  wings  of  words.  .  .  .  The  teacher's 
guiding  aim  should  be  not  only  to  develop  the  power 
and  habit  of  geographical  observation,  but  also  to 
give  the  pupils  a  clear  and  accurate  knowledge  of 
primary  ideas  and  facts, —  to  lay  a  sure  foundation  of 
geographical  knowledge." 

The  Elementary  Course.  —  The  knowledge  thus  gained 
forms  an  excellent  groundwork  for  the  more  formal 
study  of  geography.  The  child  is  now  ready  for  a 
text-book,  supplemented  by  maps  and  globes.  It 
must  not  be  mere  memory  exercise,  however.  As  the 
child  learns  the  location  of  a  city,  he  must  also  become 
acquainted  with  its  industries,  its  institutions,  etc. 
Descriptions  of  rivers  from  source  to  mouth  must 
take  into  account  the  territory  they  drain,  the  cities 
on  their  banks,  and  their  importance  as  arteries  of 
trade  and  commerce.  Mountain  ranges  have  an  effect 
upon  climate,  are  obstacles  to  transportation,  and  are 
of  interest  on  account  of  the  rivers  having  their 
source  in  them. 

After  gaining  a  knowledge  of  the  topography  of  a 
country, —  its  mountains,  its  valleys,  its  plains,  its 
elevations,  its  rivers,  its  lakes,  its  latitude,  etc.,  the 
child  can  easily  be  led  to  conclusions  as  to  what  its 
productions  and  occupations  must  be.  He  will  also 
understand  the  reason  for  the  location  of  cities  and 
much  concerning  the  inhabitants  of  the  country. 


1 76  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

Thus  he  studies  the  earth  as  the  abode  of  man,  which, 
as  we  saw  at  the  outset,  is  the  province  of  geography. 
The  child  must  be  taught  to  read  and  understand  the 
maps  and  globes.  Map-drawing  should  be  utilized  as 
an  important  aid  in  the  geography  work.  It  is  an 
excellent  practice  to  have  the  class  bring  in  an  outline 
map  of  their  own  construction  and  locate  upon  it,  under 
the  direction  of  the  teacher,  the  rivers,  mountains, 
cities,  etc.  The  corn,  wheat,  cotton,  sugar,  rice,  and 
fruit  belts  can  be  indicated  by  different  colors.  The 
location  of  coal,  iron,  gold,  petroleum,  and  other  de- 
posits can  be  fixed.  The  great  forest  reserves  can  be 
marked  and  their  importance  to  the  river  systems  and 
their  influence  upon  climate  shown.  This  will  fix  the 
various  geographical  data  in  the  minds  of  the  children, 
and  will  relate  the  science  to  the  life  of  man  far  better 
than  a  study  of  the  text-book  or  of  printed  maps  will 
be  able  to  do.  The  shape  of  the  earth,  its  poles, 
equator,  meridians,  latitude,  longitude,  the  zones,  etc., 
can  best  be  taught  by  the  use  of  the  globe. 

McMurry  says,1  "Let  it  be  observed  first  of  all  that 
geography,  more  than  other  studies,  has  domiciled  itself 
among  men  in  the  midst  of  their  homes  and  usual 
occupations.  It  walks  directly  into  the  market  places, 
homes,  factories,  mines,  and  fields  where  men  are  at 
work.  It  observes,  studies,  and  sympathizes  with  the 
labors,  amusements,  and  hardships  of  the  people  as 
they  are  beset  by  climate  and  physical  surroundings. 
Dealing  with  the  actual  conditions  of  life,  it  sees  the 
true  and  necessary  relations  in  which  different  de- 

1  "Special  Method  in  Geography."  McMurray  offers  an  excellent 
course  under  the  title,  "  A  Course  of  Study  Freely  Outlined." 


GEOGRAPHY  TEACHING  177 

partments  of  knowledge  stand  to  one  another.  It 
finds  that  things  widely  separated  in  the  studies  of  the 
schools  are  closely  jostled  together  in  life." 

Geography  can  be  made  one  of  the  most  democratic 
of  all  school  studies  and,  at  the  same  time,  one  of  the 
most  interesting  and  practical.  But  it  must  be  consid- 
ered in  its  relation  to  life.  There  is  no  subject  that 
naturally  offers  so  much  of  real  contact  with  life,  and 
therefore  there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  making  it 
intensely  interesting.  The  text-book  must  be  kept  in 
the  background;  when  it  is  used  at  all,  it  must  be 
employed  as  a  servant  to  aid  in  vivifying  the  lessons 
that  have  been  gained  first-hand  as  far  as  may  be  from 
the  study  of  the  world  immediately  present.  From 
these  early  lessons  the  study  must  reach  out  to  that 
great  world  that  is  beyond  the  immediate  vision  and 
which  cannot  be  visited.  Thus  all  geography  may  be 
studied  in  its  relation  to  the  life  of  man. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 

Importance  of  History.  —  "History,"  says  Dr.  Harris, 
"is  a  window  of  the  soul  that  looks  out  upon  the  deeds 
of  the  race."  Dr.  Hinsdale  defines  history  as  follows: 
"In  the  broadest  sense,  history  is  the  story  of  man 
living  in  social  relations  in  the  world,  as  traced  in 
various  records  and  memorials." 

It  is  of  highest  importance  in  a  republic  that  all 
the  people  should  be  well  informed  concerning  its 
history,  its  institutions,  and  its  form  of  government. 
A  despotism  may  survive  even  if  the  mass  of  its  people 
are  ignorant.  But  a  self-governing  people  must  be 
intelligent  as  well  as  patriotic,  and  familiar  with  the 
form  of  government  under  which  they  live  and  which 
they  control.  Commissioner  Claxton  shows  in  his 
report  of  1912  that  the  average  attendance  for  all 
children  throughout  the  United  States  is  but  little 
over  five  years  of  two  hundred  days  each.  It  would 
be  safe  to  assert  that  not  more  than  one  in  five  of  the 
youth  of  the  land  ever  reach  the  high  school.  If  such 
be  the  case,  the  essential  knowledge  concerning  citizen- 
ship for  the  people  as  a  whole  must  be  implanted  in 
the  elementary  school.  Hence  the  importance  of  his- 
tory as  a  subject  in  the  common  school  course  in  pre- 
paring the  boy  and  girl  for  the  life  that  they  must  live. 

From  the  very  nature  of  the  subject  history  offers 


THE   TEACHING   OF   HISTORY  179 

abundant  and  interesting  material  quite  within  the 
intellectual  reach  of  young  children.  On  this  point 
Dr.  McMurry  remarks,  "This  intelligent  interest  is 
awakened  first  of  all  by  a  lifelike  picture  of  the  personal 
fortunes  of  men  like  Daniel  Boone,  or  David,  or  Alfred 
the  Great.  Such  biographies  open  a  highway  into 
the  struggles  and  dangers  of  communities  and  young 
nations.  The  life  stories  of  inventors  and  benefactors 
like  Stephenson,  Fulton,  and  Peter  Cooper,  of  Florence 
Nightingale,  John  Eliot,  and  William  Penn,  kindle 
social  sympathies  of  lasting  worth."  Thus  history 
becomes  an  excellent  means  of  moral  instruction.  All 
children  love  stories,  and  this  natural  instinct  can  be 
utilized  in  fixing  historical  facts  and  in  drawing  the 
important  lessons  therefrom.  The  lives  and  deeds  of 
great  men  will  furnish  centers  around  which  important 
events  and  historical  epochs  can  be  made  naturally 
to  group,  thus  awakening  patriotism,  stimulating  am- 
bition to  live  a  noble  life,  and  inculcating  moral  stand- 
ards. History  can  be  made  an  efficient  aid  to  school 
discipline  in  that  it  awakens  a  desire  for  right  action, 
the  fundamental  principle  of  government.  Quoting 
again  from  McMurry,  "There  are  certain  lofty  char- 
acters, like  Alfred  the  Great,  Caesar,  Charlemagne, 
Luther,  Alexander,  Isabella,  Cromwell,  and  Napoleon, 
who  have  taught  the  world  such  commanding  lessons 
that  every  child  should  have  the  chance  to  grasp  in 
a  few  points  the  significance  of  their  lives." 

From  the  nature  of  the  subject  it  will  be  easy  to 
adapt  the  material  to  the  comprehension  of  the  chil- 
dren to  teach  them  lessons  of  the  highest  importance 
in  life.  Great  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  such 


l8o  TEACHING:     ITS   AIMS  AND  METHODS 

teaching  at  this  time  because,  as  already  pointed  out, 
it  is  the  only  opportunity  that  a  large  portion  of  the 
pupils  will  ever  have  to  obtain  this  knowledge  and 
receive  this  training. 

i.  Aims  and  Values  of  the  Subject.  —  Many  teachers 
have  no  adequate  conception  of  the  purpose  to  be 
aimed  at  in  the  study  of  history.  McMaster,  in  his 
great  work,  "A  History  of  the  People  of  the  United 
States,"  has  given  such  a  comprehensive  view  of  the 
aim  to  be  sought  in  teaching  history  that  I  shall  give 
it  in  full  in  order  that  teachers  may  have  it  for  fre- 
quent reference:  "In  the  course  of  this  narrative 
much,  indeed,  must  be  written  of  wars,  conspiracies, 
and  rebellions;  of  Presidents,  of  Congresses,  of  em- 
bassies, of  treaties,  of  the  ambition  of  political  leaders 
in 'the  senate-house,  and  of  the  rise  of  great  parties 
in  the  nation,  yet  the  history  of  the  people  shall  be 
the  chief  theme.  At  every  stage  of  the  splendid  prog- 
ress which  separates  the  America  of  Washington  and 
Adams  from  the  America  in  which  we  live,  it  shall  be 
my  purpose  to  describe  the  dress,  occupations,  the 
amusements,  the  literary  canons  of  the  times;  to  note 
the  changes  of  manners  and  morals;  to  trace  the 
growth  of  that  humane  spirit  which  abolished  punish- 
ment for  debt,  which  reformed  the  discipline  of  prisons 
and  jails,  and  which  has,  in  our  time,  destroyed  slavery 
and  lessened  the  miseries  of  dumb  brutes.  Nor  shall 
it  be  less  my  aim  to  recount  the  manifold  improve- 
ments which,  in  a  thousand  ways,  have  multiplied  the 
conveniences  of  life  and  ministered  to  the  happiness 
of  our  race;  to  describe  the  rise  and  progress  of  that 
long  series  of  mechanical  inventions  and  discoveries 


THE   TEACHING   O£   HISTORY  l8l 

which  is  now  the  admiration  of  the  world  and  our 
just  pride  and  boast;  to  tell  how,  under  the  benign 
influence  of  liberty  and  peace,  there  sprang  up,  in  the 
course  of  a  single  century,  a  prosperity  unparalleled 
in  the  annals  of  human  affairs;  how,  from  a  state  of 
great  poverty  and  feebleness,  our  country  grew  to  one 
of  opulence  and  power;  how  her  agriculture  and  her 
manufactures  flourished  together;  how,  by  a  wise 
system  of  free  education  and  a  free  press,  knowledge 
was  disseminated  and  the  arts  and  sciences  advanced; 
how  the  ingenuity  of  her  people  became  fruitful  of 
wonders  far  more  astonishing  than  any  of  which 
alchemists  had  ever  dreamed. " 

This  is  a  broad  conception  of  the  aims  to  be  sought 
in  teaching  history,  and  while  it  may  be  impossible 
for  the  teacher  of  the  elementary  grades  to  give  her 
pupils  such  an  extensive  view,  owing  to  their  im- 
maturity, and  owing  to  want  of  time,  at  least  she 
should  hold  this  view  herself.  Thus  she  will  possess  an 
overflowing  fountain  of  knowledge  and  will  not  fail  to 
interest  her  pupils.  To  teach  history  the  teacher 
should  have  a  wide  knowledge,  so  as  to  be  able  to 
draw  material  from  many  sources  and  to  correlate 
and  weave  it  into  a  unit,  to  point  out  the  various  in- 
fluences that  have  led  up  to  an  event  or  made  an 
epoch,  to  show  the  relationships  that  exist,  and  to 
draw  lessons  that  affect  the  world's  progress  and 
shape  the  destiny  of  man.  Every  teacher  must  know 
far  more  than  she  will  be  called  upon  to  teach  her 
pupils.  He  that  knows  but  little  more  than  those  he 
instructs  has  but  little  to  offer,  and  is  therefore  a 
poor  teacher.  We  have  seen  that  students  go  to  the 


182  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

ends  of  the  earth  to  sit  at  the  feet  of  men  who  have 
gained  a  mastery  in  some  field  of  learning,  in  order 
to  absorb  something  of  the  results  of  their  research 
and  thinking. 

It  is  not  expected  that  the  common  school  teacher, 
with  her  multifarious  duties  and  with  the  many  sub- 
jects that  she  must  teach,  shall  be  a  great  specialist 
in  each  subject.  But  with  the  abundance  of  material 
now  at  hand  she  can  at  least  gain  a  proper  idea  of 
history  and  possess  herself  with  far  more  than  she  can 
ever  give  to  her  pupils.  Conceiving  history  to  touch 
human  life,  it  becomes  of  vital  interest  and  of  incal- 
culable profit  to  the  pupils.  Especially  is  this  view  of 
history  of  importance  to  a  self-ruling  people.  It  leads 
directly  to  an  understanding  of  our  form  of  government 
and  prepares  for  intelligent  and  patriotic  citizenship. 
Therefore  it  is  of  supreme  importance  to  study  history 
in  the  elementary  school. 

In  a  word,  then,  the  aim  of  the  study  of  history 
should  be  to  give  the  pupils  a  view  of  human  life  past 
and  present;  it  should  train  the  judgment,  stimulate 
the  imagination,  and  cultivate  the  memory;  it  should 
foster  patriotism  and  familiarize  the  children  with  the 
government  of  their  own  country  and  their  duties 
towards  it;  it  should  arouse  ambition  and  inculcate 
moral  habits  through  the  study  of  heroes  and  men  who 
have  influenced  the  destinies  of  the  human  race, 
cultivated  the  arts  of  peace,  and  fostered  freedom. 

Methods  in  History  Teaching.  - 

i.  In  the  primary  grades.  —  The  early  method  of  teach- 
ing history  before  books  were  written  or  had  become 
universal  was  by  word  of  mouth  in  the  form  of  story. 


THE   TEACHING   OF   HISTORY  183 

Thus  the  early  Jews  taught  their  children  the  law  and 
the  deeds  of  their  ancestors,  and  thus  the  Greeks  per- 
petuated their  immortal  history.  It  is  a  natural  instinct 
of  children  to  love  narration  if  told  with  vividness  and 
in  language  suited  to  their  comprehension.  Stories  from 
the  Bible  are  quite  suited  to  the  needs  of  little  children, 
while  the  lives  of  Columbus,  Isabella,  De  Soto,  Raleigh, 
Washington,  Daniel  Boone,  Lincoln,  can  easily  be 
portrayed  so  as  to  fascinate  the  young  and  convey 
very  important  historical  lessons  that  will  never  be 
forgotten. 

While  no  text-book  will  be  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  primary  children,  the  teacher  must  be  so  thor- 
oughly familiar  with  the  facts  through  investigation 
in  many  books  as  to  be  able  to  tell  the  story  with 
accuracy  and  with  force.  There  is  abundance  of 
material  at  hand  quite  suitable  to  the  needs  of  young 
children,  and  the  primary  teacher  can  spend  many 
profitable  hours  in  recounting  to  her  pupils  heroic  and 
stirring  deeds  and  events,  thus  fixing  many  historical 
facts  in  their  minds  at  an  early  age.  These  stories 
should  be  retold  by  the  pupils,  orally  at  first,  and  in 
writing  as  soon  as  they  are  able  to  do  so.  By  skilful 
questioning  the  teacher  can  correct  errors,  supplement 
the  deficient  knowledge,  and  fix  the  lesson  in  the  minds 
of  the  children.  While  the  work  should  be  intensely 
interesting,  it  should  not  be  mere  entertainment. 
The  children  are  already  learning  history. 

2.  In  the  intermediate  grades.  —  As  the  children  be- 
come older  and  are  able  to  reason,  the  teaching  should 
be  more  systematic  and  follow  a  more  definite  plan. 
The  causes  that  led  to  a  war  and  the  results  that  fol- 


1 84  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

low,  such  as  the  payment  of  indemnities,  the  ceding 
of  territory,  the  aggrandizement  of  the  victors  and  the 
corresponding  humiliation  of  the  vanquished,  the  loss 
of  life  and  property,  all  these  should  be  brought  out. 
By  the  use  of  maps  the  location  of  battles  may  be 
indicated  and  the  territorial  changes  resulting  from 
the  conflict  pointed  out.  There  should  still  be  little 
use  of  text-books  by  the  class,  the  teacher  leading 
them  step  by  step  from  one  event  to  another  by  means 
of  oral  exposition. 

If  there  is  a  battle-field  in  the  vicinity,  the  children 
should  be  taken  to  it  and  the  details  pointed  out  on 
the  spot.  But  a  careful  preparation  should  be  made 
beforehand  by  a  full  description  of  the  battle  and  by  a 
study  of  the  details  upon  a  map.  The  battle  of 
Trenton  was  fought  in  the  very  center  of  the  present 
city.  The  school  children  of  the  city  have  visited  the 
various  historic  spots  and  placed  tablets  to  locate  the 
most  important  positions  and  incidents.  Thus  for  all 
time  not  only  the  children  but  the  stranger  visiting 
the  city  will  be  able  to  locate  where  Washington  stood 
when  he  directed  the  battle,  where  Colonel  Rail  fell, 
the  house  where  he  spent  that  fateful  Christmas  night 
in  carousal,  where  the  surrender  took  place,  etc.  This 
critical  battle  of  the  Revolution  is  thus  made  very 
real  and  vivid  and  the  children  gain  impressions 
which  they  will  never  lose.  History  is  easily  made  to 
them  a  real  and  interesting  subject  which  closely 
touches  the  actual  life  of  men. 

The  Battle-field  of  Jena. —  I  once  visited  the  battle- 
field of  Jena  with  a  class  of  boys  from  a  common  school 
under  the  direction  of  their  teacher.  Suitable  and  thor- 


THE   TEACHING   OF   HISTORY  185 

ough  preparation  had  already  been  made  in  the  school- 
room so  that  the  boys  could  intelligently  understand  the 
lessons  to  be  gained  by  the  expedition.  Napoleon's  at- 
titude towards  Prussia  and  the  German  people  had 
been  explained  and  his  rapid  march  into  the  Father- 
land described.  The  efforts  of  the  tardily  awakened 
German  king  to  check  his  advances,  the  meeting  of 
the  opposing  armies  on  the  plateau  above  the  historic 
little  university  town,  and  the  bloody,  decisive  battle 
of  Jena  had  been  portrayed.  So  far  as  could  be  done 
by  word-picture,  by  drawings  and  maps,  and  by  de- 
scriptions the  boys  had  been  taught  the  story  of  Ger- 
many's terrible  humiliation.  They  were  then  taken 
to  the  battle-field,  the  positions  of  the  opposing  forces 
located,  and  the  character  of  the  attack  explained. 
Up  this  ravine  the  French  Emperor  had  dragged  his 
heavy  artillery  and  gained  an  important  position. 
Professor  Stoy  pointed  out  the  wonderful  sagacity  of 
Napoleon  in  choosing  his  position  at  a  point  now 
marked  by  what  is  called  " Napoleon's  Stein."  Each 
detail  of  the  battle  and  the  position  of  the  commanders 
on  both  sides  was  made  clear.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  lessons  of  the  schoolroom  were  thus  fortified 
and  the  events  of  that  memorable  day,  October  i4th, 
1806,  were  indelibly  fixed  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils. 
The  boys'  visit  was  made  on  the  anniversary  of  the 
battle,  a  fact  which  added  to  the  interest  and  doubtless 
aided  in  fixing  the  date. 

In  this  period  children  can  be  led  gradually  towards 
the  conception  of  history  outlined  earlier  in  this  chapter 
in  the  quotation  from  McMaster.  They  should  be  given 
some  reading,  but  this  should  be  carefully  selected  and 


1 86  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

definitely  assigned.  Oral  and  written  reproductions 
should  be  required,  and  this  work  can  be  carried  farther 
and  the  pupils  held  to  a  stricter  account  than  is 
possible  or  advisable  in  the  earlier  grades. 

3.  In  the  grammar  grades.  —  "  Any  thing  like  a  full 
chronology,  either  of  American  or  European  history, 
is  out  of  the  question  in  the  common  school/'  says 
McMurry.  This  does  not  mean  that  now  the  pupil 
may  not  seriously  undertake  to  acquire  a  great  deal 
of  real  history.  There  is  an  abundance  of  suitable 
material  quite  within  the  comprehension  of  pupils 
in  these  grades  which  may  be  related  to  them  and 
concerning  which  they  can  do  considerable  collateral 
reading.  Only  it  must  be  emphasized  that  this  read- 
ing should  be  definitely  marked  out.  The  children 
are  not  mature  enough  to  do  research  work  and  are 
therefore  likely  to  waste  time  in  profitless  groping  in 
the  dark. 

The  New  York  State  Education  Department  has 
issued  a  syllabus  for  the  use  of  the  schools  in  the  state 
in  which  work  for  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  is  outlined. 
This  scheme  seems  entirely  feasible.  A  definite  plan 
of  study  is  suggested  with  but  little  use  of  text-books, 
it  being  urged  that,  "The  great  value  of  the  work  for 
these  years  will  depend  upon  the  teacher's  power  of 
story- telling/'  This  course  includes  a  study  of  Leif 
the  Lucky,  Columbus,  Drake,  Raleigh,  Roger  Williams, 
John  Smith,  Miles  Standish,  Governor  Winthrop, 
Henry  Hudson,  William  Penn,  Benjamin  Franklin, 
Patrick  Henry,  Washington,  John  Paul  Jones,  Daniel 
Boone,  Jackson,  Eli  Whitney,  De  Witt  Clinton, 
Lincoln,  Clara  Barton,  S.  F.  B.  Morse,  and  many 


THE   TEACHING   OF   HISTORY  187 

others.  It  centers  around  the  lives  of  men  who  have 
influenced  the  race  in  discovery  and  settlement,  in 
war  and  peace,  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  in  invention 
and  in  philanthropy.  Abundance  of  suitable  collateral 
reading  is  suggested  for  the  study  of  each  character 
and  of  each  accomplishment  for  the  advancement  of 
the  world. 

This  is  followed  by  a  course  in  American  history 
for  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  in  which  the  pupils 
are  provided  with  text-books  for  limited  use.  The 
syllabus  suggests  that  "the  history  teacher  must 
make  a  wise  selection  of  material,  search  in  many  books 
for  the  best  presentation  of  each  selected  topic,  and 
must  often  invent  methods  of  presentation.  Forming 
images  is  an  important  process  in  learning  history. 
Images  are  formed  from  the  text.  The  teacher  must 
test  these  images,  correcting  them  when  necessary 
with  word  pictures  and  illustrations.  Many  ideas  must 
be  translated  into  the  language  of  the  child's  experi- 
ence and  environment."  The  material  suggested  in- 
cludes a  study  of  the  American  Indian,  the  Discovery 
and  Exploration  Period,  the  Period  of  Settlement,  the 
French  and  English  struggles  for  North  America,  the 
Revolution,  the  Confederation,  the  Constitutional 
Period,  the  Civil  War,  and  a  consideration  of  our  form 
of  government.  The  work  of  the  earlier  grades  is 
reviewed  and  extended,  and  such  topics  as  methods 
of  transportation,  the  slavery  question,  tariff  laws, 
postal  facilities,  inventions,  etc.,  receive  treatment. 
An  abundance  of  collateral  reading  is  outlined  and  the 
pupils  are  taught  how  to  employ  the  information  thus 
acquired. 


1 88  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

Emphasis  should  be  laid  in  this  period  upon  the 
civic  duties  which  the  future  citizen  must  assume. 
Memorizing  dates  and  studying  battles  should  have 
only  a  small  place.  McMurry  suggests  that  "It  has 
been  one  of  the  chief  aims  of  educators  to  find  out  a 
series  of  epochs  in  the  world's  history  which  are 
most  interesting  and  instructive  to  children  in  their 
successive  stages  of  growth.  As  yet  there  seems  to 
be  no  general  agreement  upon  this  point,  and  therefore 
our  courses  of  study  are  in  a  shifting  condition;  but 
so  much,  at  least,  seems  to  be  established,  that  a  few 
important  epochs  well  treated  in  a  descriptive  and 
even  dramatic  fullness  are  far  better  than  a  systematic, 
chronological  survey  of  the  history  of  many  nations/' 
Just  how  far  the  history  of  other  countries  of  the 
world  should  be  undertaken  in  the  elementary  school 
is  debatable.  It  certainly  is  impossible  to  make  a 
connected  and  systematic  study  of  the  history  of  any 
country  except  our  own.  But  an  insight  into  the 
history  of  some  other  nations  is  necessary  to  a  proper 
understanding  of  our  own  history.  The  English,  the 
Spanish,  the  French,  and  the  Dutch  peoples  have 
played  an  important  part  in  the  discovery,  settlement, 
and  development  of  our  country  and  in  shaping  its 
institutions.  Important  events  in  the  history  of  these 
nations,  therefore,  should  be  introduced  in  the  form  of 
descriptive  presentation. 

In  a  word,  the  teacher  should  select  material  that 
will  explain  the  world's  progress,  the  growth  of  nations, 
and  the  development  of  the  race  up  to  the  present 
time  in  order  to  show  her  pupils  what  has  been  accom- 
plished and  to  give  them  an  understanding  of  the  age 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY  189 

in  which  they  live.  To  this  end  text-books  for  the 
older  children  should  be  employed  rather  as  a  guide 
for  the  teacher  than  as  a  systematic  scheme  for  the 
children  to  follow.  Of  course  the  subject  should 
be  closely  related  with  geography  by  the  frequent 
use  of  maps  and  outlines.  Reproductions  both  oral 
and  written  may  be  expected  more  and  more  as  the 
pupils  advance.  These  will  fix  the  material  learned, 
give  power  of  connected  thought  and  statement,  and 
serve  as  an  excellent  exercise  in  composition  as  well. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  TEACHING  OF  ARITHMETIC 

The  Importance  of  the  Subject.  —  Many  believe  that 
arithmetic  is  the  most  necessary  and  practical  subject 
of  the  school  course.  That  it  is  both  necessary  and 
practical  is  beyond  question.  It  enters  into  the  life 
of  every  person,  and  a  lack  of  knowledge  of  arithmetic 
seriously  handicaps  an  individual.  An  overestimate 
of  value  has  led  some  schools  to  devote  too  much 
time  to  this  subject,  fully  one-third  of  the  school  day 
being  allotted  to  it.  After  all,  the  average  person 
needs  but  little  arithmetic  in  the  affairs  of  life.  If 
one  were  to  reflect  as  to  how  little  computation  is 
really  necessary  for  a  day,  a  week,  or  a  month,  one 
would  be  surprised.  One  needs,  of  course,  to  know 
how  to  add,  subtract,  multiply,  and  divide,  how  to 
manipulate  fractions,  to  handle  compound  numbers  to 
a  limited  extent,  and  decimals,  in  order  to  understand 
percentage  and  to  compute  interest.  But  that  is  about 
all  excepting  for  accountants,  bookkeepers,  engineers, 
and  bankers.  Indeed,  even  these  have  prepared  tables 
and  formulas,  accounting  machines,  and  other  "  short- 
cuts" which  save  them  from  much  computation. 
Therefore,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  practical 
use,  too  much  time  is  devoted  to  arithmetic  in  schools. 

What  Arithmetic  Should  Include.  —  I  have  already 
shown  in  the  chapter  on  "Waste  in  Education"  that 
many  subjects  treated  in  the  ordinary  text-book  on 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ARITHMETIC 


IQI 


arithmetic,  and  demanded  in  our  courses  of  study, 
might  be  eliminated  and  more  profitable  work  sub- 
stituted. The  Department  of  Public  Instruction  of 
New  Jersey,  in  a  bulletin  entitled  "The  Teaching  of 
Elementary  Arithmetic, "  suggests  the  following  as  the 
proper  material  for  the  elementary  grades  in  arith- 
metic : 

Grade      I.     Counting  numbers. 

Grade    II.     Reading  numbers. 

1.  Integers  —  Arabic  and  Roman. 

2.  Common  fractions. 

3.  Decimal  fractions. 

Grade  III.     Writing  numbers: 

1.  Integers  —  Arabic  and  Roman. 

2.  Common  fractions. 

3.  Decimal  fractions. 

The  process: 


Grade  IV. 

i.  Addition 


of 


1.  Integers 

2.  Common  fractions 

3.  Decimal  fractions    to 

three  places 


2.  Subtraction 

3.  Multiplication 

4.  Division    .... 

Grade     V.     Percentage  applications: 

1.  Trade  or  Commercial  Discount. 

2.  Profit  or  Loss. 

3.  Commission. 

4.  Simple  Interest. 

Grade  VI.     The   following    subjects    should    be    treated 
largely  for  informational  purposes: 

1.  Taxes.  5-  Bonds. 

2.  Insurance.  6.  Bank  Discount. 

3.  Stocks.  7-  Compound  Interest. 

4.  Partial  Payments. 


192  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

Grade  VII.    Denominate   numbers    in    useful   problems   of 
community  value. 

It  is  further  suggested  that  in  all  the  topics  under 
VI,  together  with  Longtitude  and  Time,  Ratio  and 
Proportion,  and  Lumber  Measure,  the  problems  "  should 
be  of  the  simplest  kind,  and  they  should  be  used 
for  their  informational  as  well  as  for  their  mathe- 
matical value. "  Later  in  this  chapter  I  shall  present 
a  detailed  course  in  arithmetic. 

We  usually  require  in  our  schools  fully  eight  years 
in  arithmetic,  giving  at  least  a  period  a  day,  whereas 
six  years  should  be  sufficient.  German  schools  succeed 
in  bringing  their  pupils  to  an  excellent  mastery  of  this 
subject  in  six  years,  without  daily  recitations  even 
during  all  that  time.  They  do  this  by  eliminating 
unnecessary  material  and  by  superior  methods  of  teach- 
ing. This  enables  them  to  devote  the  seventh  and 
eighth  years  to  elementary  algebra  and  constructional 
geometry,  with  an  hour  or  two  a  week  for  advanced 
arithmetic.  With  the  many  new  subjects  knocking  at 
the  door  for  admission  to  our  schools,  subjects  that  the 
demands  of  modern  life  make  imperative,  it  is  evident 
that  there  should  be  a  serious  curtailment  of  the  time 
given  to  arithmetic.  Some  of  these  subjects  are  of 
far  greater  importance  than  arithmetic  in  preparation 
for  life,  without  minimizing  the  importance  of  that 
subject.  It  is  of  more  account  to  be  able  to  read,  to 
appreciate  literature  and  history,  to  interpret  the 
wonders  of  nature  and  the  phenomena  of  the  world 
about  us,  to  express  one's  self  by  voice  or  pen  accu- 
rately and  clearly,  to  know  our  social  and  political 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ARITHMETIC  193 

institutions,  and  to  be  able  to  adjust  one's  self  to  one's 
environment  and  thus  find  happiness  in  life,  than  it 
is  to  be  skilled  in  figures. 

I  have  no  disposition  to  underrate  the  value  of  arith- 
metic. Besides  its  practical  use,  which  is  unquestioned, 
though  exaggerated,  as  we  have  seen,  it  also  has  a 
disciplinary  value,  concerning  which  educators  differ 
in  opinion.  The  doctrine  of  formal  discipline,  which 
holds  that  training  in  one  subject  like  arithmetic  gives 
clearness,  logical  power,  accuracy,  and  mental  alert- 
ness along  other  educational  lines,  is  not  accepted  by 
all.  No  one  will  dispute  the  value  of  the  training 
arithmetic  gives,  especially  in  all  subjects  in  which 
there  is  mathematical  application,  such  as  geography 
and  the  physical  sciences,  as  well  as  in  those  that 
apply  to  commercial  and  scientific  vocations. 

Nothing  can  take  the  place  of  arithmetic  either  from 
a  practical  or  from  a  disciplinary  standpoint,  but  it  is 
not  the  only  subject  that  has  a  practical  or  disciplin- 
ary value.  It  was  formerly  believed  that  mathematics 
was  the  only  subject  that  trains  in  logical  thinking. 
Other  subjects,  however,  if  properly  taught,  also  train 
to  reason,  to  judge,  and  to  think,  and  modern  methods 
of  teaching  are  demonstrating  this  fact,  as  I  am  en- 
deavoring to  show. 

Let  us  consider  the  aim  and  the  method  which  should 
be  in  mind  in  teaching  arithmetic,  and  thereby  suggest 
its  place,  its  purpose,  and  its  limitations  in  the  cur- 
riculum, and  the  specific  end  that  it  should  seek  to 
attain. 


194  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

I.    AIMS  IN  TEACHING  ARITHMETIC1 

The  chief  ends  to  be  sought  in  arithmetic  are 
accuracy  and  facility.  While  children  should  learn 
to  work  rapidly  in  numbers,  this  is  subordinate  to 
accuracy.  One  of  the  principal  educational  values  in 
arithmetic  lies  in  its  exactness.  It  necessitates  close 
thinking  and  develops  logical  power.  But  while  the 
essential  aim  is  accuracy,  rapidity  must  also  be  secured. 
This  power  is  acquired  only  through  drill.  Some  sub- 
jects may  be  taught  without  requiring  much  thought, 
but  not  mathematics.  Guesswork  will  not  do,  for  the 
results  are  absolute.  Nor  will  mere  memorizing  of 
rules  and  formulas  answer.  The  pupil  must  think, 
must  reason,  must  go  to  the  foundations,  or  his  work 
in  arithmetic  will  prove  futile.  A  girl  persisted  in 
memorizing  her  geometry  lessons;  she  not  only  com- 
mitted the  theorems  to  memory,  but  also  the  equations, 
the  analyses,  the  demonstrations,  and  the  conclusions. 
As  a  result  any  change  in  the  position  of  the  figures 
or  the  lettering,  an  alteration  in  the  equations,  threw 
her  off  the  track.  Of  course  she  got  nothing  from 
the  study  of  geometry,  which  of  all  subjects  requires 
close  thinking,  reasoning,  and  absolute  accuracy  of 
expression.  The  same  is  true,  in  a  measure,  of  arith- 
metic. 

Again,  the  object  of  studying  arithmetic  is  to  acquire 
abstract  notions.  Indeed,  this  is  an  important  aim 
in  all  teaching,  for  the  possession  of  abstract  or  general 
notions  is  an  evidence  of  intelligence,  and  a  measure 

1  For  excellent  suggestions  on  teaching  arithmetic,  see  White's  "Art 
of  Teaching,"  p.  242,  in  which  the  work  of  the  various  grades  is  treated. 


THE   TEACHING   OF  ARITHMETIC  195 

of  the  knowledge  possessed.  This  is  the  final  and  abso- 
lute test  that  marks  the  dividing  line  between  man  and 
the  lower  animals. '  No  animal  other  than  man  pos- 
sesses this  power.  Horses  have  been  trained  to  per- 
form marvelous  tricks,  and  even  to  work  mathematical 
problems,  so  that  it  has  been  claimed  that  they  can 
reason  abstractly.  But  cover  their  eyes  so  that  they 
can  get  no  hint  from  their  trainer,  remove  the  con- 
crete means  of  suggestion,  and  they  fail  utterly.1  As 
the  possession  of  abstract  notions  thus  marks  the 
degree  of  intelligence,  arithmetic,  which  furnishes  an 
excellent  method  of  obtaining  these  notions,  becomes 
an  important  means  of  education. 

We  may  summarize  the  aim  in  studying  arithmetic 
as  follows:  (i)  It  prepares  the  child  to  meet  the 
practical  problems  of  everyday  life.  This  necessitates 
absolute  accuracy  and  great  facility  in  the  manipula- 
tion of  numbers.  It  admits  of  no  guesswork,  as  its 
results  can  be  pfoven.  (2)  It  has  a  peculiar  disciplin- 
ary value  because  of  its  exactness.  It  gives  clearness, 
logical  power,  mental  alertness,  and  establishes  a  sense 
of  truth,  and  therefore  develops  moral  character. 
(3)  It  gives  the  child  abstract  or  general  notions. 
Nothing  can  take  its  place,  either  from  the  practical 
or  the  disciplinary  standpoint.  For  this  reason  it  has 
long  held  first  rank  in  the  work  of  the  common  school. 

1  Wide  interest  in  this  subject  has  been  awakened  in  recent  years  by 
the  performances  in  Germany  of  a  celebrated  horse,  "Clever  Hans." 
Many  experts  believed  that  here  was  a  case  of  abstract  reasoning  in  a 
lower  animal.  But  Prof.  Pfiingst  has  shown  the  utter  fallacy  of  this 
claim  in  his  book  entitled,  "Clever  Hans."  Other  horses  have  been  ex- 
ploited and  wonderful  results  obtained,  but  there  is  no  proof  of  the  pos- 
session of  the  power  of  abstraction. 


196  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

Its  value  is  by  no  means  minimized  when  we  say  that 
it  has  taken  too  much  of  the  time  of  the  school;  that 
there  are  other  subjects  also,  which,  when  properly 
taught,  develop  the  power  to  reason,  to  think,  and  to 
judge,  and  which  are  at  least  of  as  great  practical 
value,  and  which  also  lay  the  foundations  of  character. 

II.     METHODS  IN  TEACHING  ARITHMETIC 

The  little  child  begins  his  study  of  number  with 
objects.  We  have  seen  that  too  many  objects  must 
not  be  introduced,  as  they  serve  to  distract  and  defeat 
the  immediate  purpose,  that  of  mastery  of  the  number. 
The  child  has  only  a  limited  power  of  attention,  and 
anything  that  causes  a  withdrawal  of  any  part  of  his 
attention  from  the  end  sought  will  serve  to  weaken 
his  interest  in  what  the  teacher  is  seeking  to  do. 
Blocks,  uniform  in  size,  and  not  highly  colored  objects, 
which  awaken  too  much  attention  in  the  object  itself, 
are  the  best  objects,  and  they  are  sufficient  for  all 
purposes  of  concrete  illustration.  They  awaken  no 
interest  in  themselves,  and  therefore  the  child  soon 
ceases  to  think  of  the  object,  and  gives  all  his  atten- 
tion to  the  number  being  taught.  They  should  be 
used  until  the  child  has  gained  the  abstract  notion, 
until,  if  given  an  example  like  5+3,  he  instantly 
thinks  8,  without  having  to  think  of  5  blocks  and  3 
blocks.  Here  again  is  seen  the  necessity  of  drill,  of 
much  repetition.  "Wiederholung,  Wiederholung,  Wie- 
derholung, ewige  Wiederholung"  was  Karl  Volkmar 
Stoy's  watchword  in  teaching  children,  and  this  is 
certainly  sound  so  far  as  number  is  concerned. 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ARITHMETIC  igf 

If  the  tables  are  thoroughly  learned,  the  child  will 
not  count  on  his  fingers.  I  have  already  shown  that 
when  the  child  employs  objects  in  counting  it  is  a 
sure  sign  that  he  needs  further  drill,  that  he  has  not 
yet  attained  the  abstract  notion. 

The  Concentric  or  Spiral  Plan. — The  arrangement  of 
number  work,  therefore,  should  be  somewhat  concentric 
or  spiral,  but  should  avoid  the  scrappy,  superficial 
treatment  which  was  true  of  some  of  the  earlier 
attempts  of  this  arrangement. 

By  the  concentric  or  spiral  plan  in  arithmetic,  we 
mean  beginning  with  the  simplest  elements  of  the 
important  topics,  and  then  passing  on  to  the  more 
difficult  as  we  proceed  through  the  higher  grades  until 
the  fundamental  topics  become  thoroughly  familiar 
and  are  completely  mastered.  Good  results  in  arith- 
metic depend  in  a  large  measure  upon  a  proper  arrange- 
ment of  the  topics  to  be  treated  in  the  lower  grades. 
Addition  is  the  simplest  of  all  the  fundamental  pro- 
cesses, but  if  young  pupils  were  drilled  upon  addition 
to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  processes,  they  would  soon 
be  struggling  with  its  difficulties,  lose  interest,  and  be- 
come weary  from  its  monotony. 

Simple  phases  of  the  fundamental  processes  that  can 
be  performed  with  small  numbers,  weights  and  meas- 
ures that  are  related  to  experience,  and  fractions  that 
are  concrete  and  result  from  the  division  of  things, 
should  be  logically  arranged,  but  the  interest  of  the 
pupil,  and  his  maturity  of  mind,  should  be  the  basis 
of  the  arrangement.  The  spiral  system  calls  for  thor- 
ough drill  and  therein  lies  its  great  value. 

The  Sequence  of  Topics.  —  The  sequence  or  proper 


1 98  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

order  of  the  topics  in  arithmetic  has  much  to  do  with 
its  successful  teaching.  Thoroughness  should  be  one 
of  the  important  aims  of  every  teacher  of  arithmetic, 
but  thoroughness  does  not  mean  that  the  child  shall 
do  nothing  but  addition  of  long  columns  of  large 
numbers  until  he  has  finished  the  topic.  Nor  should 
the  absurd  presentations  of  the  concentric  plan,  which 
have  been  introduced  within  the  last  quarter  of  a 
century,  be  adopted. 

It  is  evident  to  every  thoughtful  teacher  that  there 
are  parts  of  each  one  of  the  fundamental  processes 
which  are  beyond  the  maturity  of  the  mind  of  the 
children  of  the  primary  grades,  and  that  on  the  other 
hand  there  are  simple  phases  of  fractions,  and  measures, 
which  are  of  interest  and  of  practical  use  to  the  chil- 
dren of  these  grades.  These  topics  can  be  selected  and 
arranged  so  that  a  psychological  as  well  as  a  logical 
order  is  observed,  while  the  superficial  treatment  of 
some  of  the  earlier  attempts  at  the  concentric  plan  are 
avoided. 

Oral  and  Written  Work.  —  Both  oral  and  written 
work  in  number  must  be  employed.  It  has  well  been 
said,  "The  ability  to  perceive  principles  in  problems 
orally  stated,  to  carry  them  through  a  course  of  reason- 
ing, and  to  apply  them  in  the  solution  of  problems,  is  of 
greatest  importance  in  disciplining  and  strengthening 
the  mind.  Hence,  no  system  of  arithmetic  can  be 
complete  which  does  not  combine  oral  with  written 
exercises/'  A  generation  ago  great  stress  was  laid 
upon  mental  arithmetic  in  the  schools,  every  child 
being  put  through  Colburn's  or  Stoddard's,  or  some 
other  "Mental  Arithmetic. "  Doubtless  the  subject 


THE   TEACHING   OF  ARITHMETIC  199 

was  overworked,  and  this  led  to  its  elimination  from 
the  school  course.  There  seems  to  be  a  tendency  to 
restore  it  in  a  modified  form,  as  it  certainly  possesses 
great  educational  merit.  In  the  primary  grades  an 
abundance  of  concrete  examples  drawn  from  prac- 
tical life  should  be  given,  thus  making  the  child's 
number  work  of  real  value. 

In  the  advanced  classes  in  arithmetic,  the  method 
of  procedure  should  be:  (i)  Teach  the  child  how  to 
solve  problems,  advancing  from  the  easy  to  the  diffi- 
cult until  he  has  acquired  the  ability  to  work  accu- 
rately and  speedily.  (2)  Then  let  him  explain  them 
and  tell  in  his  own  language  how  he  worked  them,  as  a 
test  of  his  complete  understanding  of  the  process. 
(3)  And  finally,  require  him  to  commit  to  memory  the 
rule  given  in  the  text-book.  Many  teachers  omit  this 
final  step,  holding  that  if  the  child  can  work  the  prob- 
lems and  tell  in  his  own  way  how  they  are  done,  it  is 
sufficient.  This  is  a  reaction  from  the  former  method 
of  having  the  rule  committed  first.  While  the  first 
two  steps  are  conceded  to  be  absolutely  essential,  I 
think  that  the  third  also  cannot  be  omitted  if  the 
work  is  to  be  fixed  and  become  a  permanent  feature 
in  the  child's  store  of  knowledge.  It  is  a  difficult 
thing  to  state  in  compact  and  accurate  form  a  rule 
which  states  the  whole  truth  without  unnecessary 
verbiage,  and  therefore  it  cannot  be  expected  of  a 
child.  And  yet,  the  possession  of  such  formulas,  prin- 
ciples, rules,  or  norms  of  knowledge  is  of  highest  im- 
portance in  intellectual  as  well  as  in  moral  life.  Who 
is  not  stronger  in  his  moral  life  if  possessed  of  such 
fundamental  aphorisms  as  "  Honesty  is  the  best  policy," 


200  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

"To  err  is  human;  to  forgive,  divine/'  "As  ye  would 
that  men  should  do  unto  you,  do  ye  even  so  unto 
them."  And  is  not  the  same  true  of  intellectual 
formulas?  Rules  of  grammar,  learned  after  the  truths 
they  contain  are  understood,  furnish  a  guide  and  are 
an  assurance  in  the  use  of  language.  So,  too,  rules 
in  arithmetic  strengthen  the  hold  of  the  pupil  upon 
that  subject.  A  rule  is  a  recapitulation,  a  summary,  a 
complete  statement  of  a  process,  and  Kern  says  that, 
"No  instruction  is  complete  without  a  final  statement 
of  the  whole  truth  in  a  compact  summary."  Such 
rules  thus  stored  in  the  child's  mind  will  furnish  sure 
and  tried  standards  of  accepted  truth,  upon  which  he 
may  draw  in  the  future  with  certainty  and  assurance. 
But  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  he  must  first  under- 
stand them  or  they  will  be  of  little  use. 

Arithmetic  Must  be  Practical.  —  Finally,  let  it  be 
emphasized  that  the  arithmetic  of  the  school  should  be 
closely  allied  to  the  affairs  of  everyday  life.  Too 
often  the  school  is  quite  another  realm  from  that  in 
which  the  child  must  exist,  and  we  cannot  emphasize 
too  much  the  truth,  "The  school  is  life,"  so  pithily 
stated  by  John  Dewey.  Problems  in  marketing  could 
be  given  to  very  young  children,  while  there  is  an 
abundance  of  material  available  as  they  advance.  As 
a  concrete  illustration,  suppose  the  pupils  are  studying 
compound  numbers,  and  a  house  is  being  built  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  school.  Take  the  children  on 
the  ground  and  let  them  follow  every  step  of  the  pro- 
cess, measuring  dimensions  and  estimating  the  values 
of  actual  materials.  How  many  problems  that  touch 
the  subject-matter  of  arithmetic  could  be*  evolved! 


THE    TEACHING   OF   ARITHMETIC  2OI 

The  excavation  of  the  cellar  and  the  erection  of  the 
walls  would  illustrate  cubic  measure;  the  surface  of 
the  interior  and  exterior,  the  siding,  plastering,  floor- 
ing, roofing,  painting,  and  papering  would  furnish 
examples  in  square  measure;  there  would  be  abundant 
use  of  linear  measure,  while  estimates  of  cost  of  ma- 
terial, labor,  and  supervision  would  make  a  great  va- 
riety of  practical  problems.  Of  course,  this  would 
take  time,  but  it  would  awaken  a  live  interest  in  the 
pupils,  it  would  make  them  feel  that  they  were  actually 
doing  something,  and  it  would  give  them  about  all  the 
arithmetic  the  ordinary  person  needs.  If  such  a 
result  can  be  brought  about  it  is  worth  while.  Prob- 
lems connected  with  the  farm,  the  shop,  the  store,  the 
factory,  or  the  household  can  easily  be  originated  by 
both  teacher  and  pupils,  thus  making  arithmetic  a 
vital,  interesting,  and  practical  subject. 

Because  of  the  importance  of  the  subject  of  arith- 
metic, because  of  the  established  place  it  holds  in 
every  school  whatever  else  may  be  dropped  from  the 
curriculum,  and  because  of  the  many  erroneous  notions 
as  to  what  topics  should  be  taught,  I  submit  a  model 
course  of  study  for  the  eight  years  of  the  elementary 
school.1 

1  This  course  of  study  was  prepared  by  Prof.  Frank  H.  Scobey,  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  the  New  Jersey  State  Normal  School  at  Trenton. 
It  is  the  course  which  he  presents  to  his  method  classes  in  arithmetic, 
and  is  recognized  as  a  practical  and  at  the  same  time  psychologically  and 
pedagogically  sound  presentation  of  the  subject.  This  course  is  followed 
in  the  grades  of  the  Model  School  connected  with  the  Normal  School  at 
Trenton. 


202  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 


A   COURSE   OF   STUDY  IN  ARITHMETIC 

WORK  OF  THE  FIRST   SCHOOL  YEAR 

The  development  of  the  number  sense  in  children  of  the  same  age 
varies  so  much  that  many  schools  defer  the  formal  or  systematic 
teaching  of  number  until  later.  First  year  work  should  appeal  to 
the  child's  interest  in  doing,  i.  e.,  constructing  with  blocks,  designing 
with  splints,  grouping  and  classifying  objects.  Counting  and 
measuring,  which  are  the  real  beginning  of  number,  should  be  the 
incidental  product  of  these  activities. 

I.  COMPARISON  AND  COUNTING 

A.  Comparison.  —  Notions  of  greater  than,  less  than,  equality, 
more  than,  most,  least,  etc.,  should  come  before  counting. 

Make  this  work  of  interest  to  children  by  having  them  compare 
blocks,  splints,  etc.,  and  by  constructing  with  blocks.  To  illus- 
trate, after  the  children  have  built  with  blocks  let  them  make 
comparisons  such  as,  "This  block  is  taller  than  that."  "My  tower 
is  the  highest  of  all."  "My  house  has  more  blocks  than  John's 
has." 

B.  Counting.  —  i.   Counting    blocks     used    in     constructions: 
"There  are  4  blocks  in  my  chair."     "I  have  put  6  blocks  in 
my  table;"  "8  in  the  tower,"  etc.     2.   Counting  pupils  in  class, 
seats  or  desks  in  room,  pictures  on  walls.     3.    Houses  on  one  side 
of  street,  boxes  in  post-office.    4.   Balls  on  abacus  by  ones,  tens, 
fives,  etc.,  to  100. 

II.  NOTATION  OF  NUMBERS 

A.  Writing   figures  to    denote    number    of    groups    of    things 
counted. 

B.  Reading  numbers  under  100.     Number  of  pages  in  reading 
books,  street  numbers  of  houses,  numbers  on  post-office  boxes. 

C.  Writing   and   reading   numbers  which  stand   for   scores   in 
number  games. 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ARITHMETIC  203 

III.   OPERATIONS 

A.  Additions.  — Those   that   grow    out   of    constructions    and 
measurements    with   blocks,   splints,   etc.     "I   used   3    blocks   to 
make   the   door,   and    2    blocks   for   the   steps   of   my   house;    2 
blocks   and   3    blocks   are   5   blocks."     "This   stick  is  3   inches 
long;  I  put  with  it  a  2-inch  stick  and  make  a  stick  5  inches 
long." 

B.  Subtractions.  —  Those  similar  to  additions.     "I  had  7  blocks 
in   a   tower,    but   I   took  away   2   blocks   and   it  left   5   blocks 
in  the  tower." 

IV.  DENOMINATE  NUMBERS 

Children  become  acquainted  with  those  related  to  their  experi- 
ence: inch,  square  inch,  pint,  quart,  nickel,  dime,  etc. 

WORK  OF  THE  SECOND   SCHOOL  YEAR 

I.  NUMBER  SPACE 

A.  Counting  by  ones,  twos,  fives,  tens,  forward  and  backward. 
Counting  by  hundreds  to  1000.     Bundles  of  splints  used  to  give 
idea  of  unit  ten,  unit  hundred. 

B.  Reading  and  writing  numbers  to  4  or  5  places.    Devices 
for  rapid  reading  of  numbers. 

II.   MEASURING 

Work  of  first  year  continued  and  extended. 

A.  Lines.  —  i.  Measurement  of  lengths  of  objects  with  inch 
and  foot  units.  2.  Judging  of  lengths  of  objects  and  measur- 
ing to  test: 

"I  think  this  splint  is  6  inches  long,  etc."  3.  Drill  on  number 
combinations  to  20,  using  splints,  strips  of  paper,  lines  on  black- 
board. Illustrations:  (a)  Children  combine  splints  and  describe: 
"I  put  a  5-inch  stick  with  a  6-inch  stick  and  have  an  n-inch 
stick."  (b)  Children  estimate  the  length  of  stick  which  put  with 
a  g-inch  stick  will  make  a  1 6-inch  stick,  (c)  Similar  exercises 
with  lines,  (d)  Drawing,  with  aid  of  rulers,  lines,  rectangles  of 
definite  dimensions.  Measuring  perimeters  of  rectangles, 


204  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

B.  Surfaces.  —  Measuring  rectangles  by  folding,  or  dividing 
into  square  inches.  Describing  such  forms  as  follows:  "I  made 
an  oblong  5  inches  long  and  2  inches  wide,  and  it  contains  10 
square  inches."  Note:  This  work  is  limited  to  small  rectangles. 

III.  FUNDAMENTAL  FACTS 

A.  Review   those   learned   incidentally  during  the   first   year, 
and  classify  in  tables. 

B.  Finish  additions  and  corresponding  subtractions  in  following 
arrangement  (Tables  of  4  +  and  —  4) :  — 

4+i=5  5—4= i 

4+  2=6  6—  4=2 

4+3=7  7-4=3 

4+  4=  8  8-4=4 

4+  9=  13  13-  4=  9 

C.  Vary  this  arrangement  with  the  more  practical  form: 
Addition.     Illustration  of  Table  4. 


I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

_4 

_4 

_4 

_4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

ii 

12 

13 

Subtraction. 

Austrian 

method 

i 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

ii 

12 

13 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

_4 

4 

_4 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D.  In  teaching  facts  of  addition  and  subtraction  the  method 
should  be  objective  until  the  children  acquire  the  power  of  inference. 

Illustration  of  the  method  of  inference:  —  If  44-4=8,  how 
many  are  4+4  and  i?  How  many  are  4+  5  ?  or,  If  4+  5  are  9, 
how  many  are  5+4? 

E.  Drill  thoroughly  on  combinations  until  their  recall  is  auto- 
matic. 

1  By  the  Austrian  method  is  meant  the  method  of  adding  to  the  sub- 
trahend to  make  the  minuend  instead  of  the  method  of  "taking  from" 
the  minuend, 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ARITHMETIC  205 

F.  Facts  of  multiplication  and  division  begun  in  second  term. 
The  following  arrangement  shows  proper  order  of  teaching:  — 
Tables  of  4: 

1X4=4  44-  4=  i 

2X4=    8  8^-4=  2 

3X4=   12  124-4=  3 

9X4=36  364-4=9 

G.  Method  of  teaching  should  be  objective  at  first.     For  method 
by  inference,  see  third  year  work. 

IV.    FRACTIONS 

Children  divide  objects,  as  paper  disks  and  rectangles,  into 
halves,  fourths,  thirds.  In  measurement  they  perceive  such  rela- 
tions as  \  as  large,  J  as  large.  They  learn  to  express  these  parts 
or  relations  with  figures. 

V.  DENOMINATE  NUMBERS 

Those  which  appeal  to  experience  and  which  may  be  taught 
objectively:  (a)  Pint,  quart,  gallon.  (Relations  seen);  (b)  Cent, 
nickel,  dime,  dollar;  (c)  Inch,  foot,  yard;  (d)  Tell  time  by  clock, 
some  idea  of  divisions  of  time. 

VI.  WRITTEN  ARITHMETIC 

A.  Addition.  —  i.  Combinations  as  shown  in  III  C.     2.  Addi- 
tions of  two  three-place  numbers,     (a)  No  "carrying."      (b)  Where 
units  order  exceeds  9. 

B.  Subtraction.  —  Austrian    Method,     i.    As   seen   in   III   C. 
2.  Two  three-place  numbers  involving  no  "borrowing." 

VII.    NATURE  OF  PROBLEMS 

Problems  (or  stories)  are  related  to  children's  experience  and 
interest,  i.  e.,  their  toys,  purchases,  games,  handwork,  costs  of 
measures  of  things.  The  problems  should  involve  numbers  which 
they  can  use  mentally,  and  in  purchases  the  actual  prices  of  things 
should  be  used. 


206  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

WORK  OF  THE  THIRD  SCHOOL  YEAR 

I.  NUMBER 

A.  Drill  on  additions  and  subtractions  continued.     Tables  of 
combinations  for  increasing  facility  in  addition,  e.  g: 

4+  5=  9  9+6=  15 

14+  5=  19  19+  6  =  25 

24  +  5=  29  29+6=  35 

94+  5=  99  99+  6  =  105 

Children  will  learn  from  these  exercises  that  adding  5  to  a  number 
ending  in  4  always  gives  a  number  ending  in  9,  etc. 

B.  Multiplications.  —  i.   In   teaching  a   new   fact   based   upon 
preceding  fact  as,  4X6+6=5X6,  or  upon  preceding  primary 
fact  as,  If  8X7=  56,  then  yx  8=  56.     2.  After  necessary  drill 
classify  tables  as  far  as  12  X  12. 

C.  Divisions  (Parallel  with  Multiplications).  —  i.  Derive  from 
corresponding    multiplication     fact,    e.g.,     If    7X8=56,     then 
56-7-8=  7.      2.    Classify    in     tables    as    far    as     144-:-  12=  12. 
3.  In  exact  divisions,   as 

29  +  5  =  5  and  4  over 
32-7-6=  5  and  2  over. 

II.  WRITTEN  ARITHMETIC  (FUNDAMENTAL  PROCESSES) 

A.  Notation  and  Numeration  as  far  as  numbers  of  six  figures. 

B.  Addition.  —  Sums  of   numbers  in  which  results  of  columns 
are  greater  than  9.     Difficulties  provided  for  by  graded  steps. 

C.  Subtraction.  —  One  or  more  orders  of   subtrahend  greater 
than  corresponding  orders  of  minuend.     (Steps  graded.) 

D.  Multiplication.  —  i.  Multiplier  less  than  ten.     2.  Multiplier 
of  two  figures. 

E.  Short  Division.  (Steps  graded.) 

III.  FRACTIONS.     Taught  Objectively 

Teach  in  the  following  order  of  sets: 
First  set,  halves,  fourth,  eighths. 
Second  set,  thirds,  sixths. 


THE    TEACHING    OF    ARITHMETIC  2OJ 

A.  Comparisons,  e.  g.,  f  =  f. 

B.  Additions  and  Subtractions: 

*+i  i+J  1-i 

i+l  1+f  l-i 

i+f 

C.  Partitions  or  fractional  parts  of  numbers: 

J  and  }  of  numbers 

J  and  f  of  numbers  Concrete  Problems. 

IV.  MEASUREMENT 

A.  Folding  or  dividing  rectangles  in  square  inches  as  described 
in  second  year  work. 

B.  Comparing  rectangles  to  determine  ratio,  as  £,  J  as  large,  or 
2,  3,  4,  times  as  large. 

C.  Drawing  rectangles  on  paper  or  board  and  estimating  surface 
by  applying  unit  of  measure. 

D.  Distances  measured  in  inches,  feet,  and  yards. 

E.  Denominate  Numbers  reviewed,  adding  ounce  and  pound, 
quart,  peck,  dry  measure.     Show  relations. 

V.  NOTATION  OF  UNITED  STATES  MONEY  AND  SIMPLE  APPLICATIONS 
Purchases  and  making  change. 

VI.  ROMAN  NOTATION  TO  100 

VII.  ORAL  AND  WRITTEN  PROBLEMS  of  simple  character  should  be 
associated  with  the  work  of  each  topic.     Successful  work  in  prob- 
lems depends  upon  keeping  them  within  the  children's  experience 
and  applying  to  their  interests.     Make  problems  about  their  manual 
work,  gardens,  purchases,  possessions.     Limited  use  of  text-book 
for  this  grade. 

WORK  OF  THE  FOURTH  SCHOOL  YEAR 

I.  NOTATION  AND  NUMERATION 

Reading  and  writing  numbers  through  three  periods.  Little 
formal  drill  is  needed  in  this,  as  there  is  constant  review  in  writing 
and  reading  numbers  corresponding  to  the  arithmetical  terms, 
multiplicand,  multiplier,  product,  dividend,  and  quotient. 


208  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

II.  WRITTEN  ARITHMETIC 

A.  Thorough  drill  in  four  fundamental  operations,  working  for 
accuracy  and  rapidity. 

B.  Increase  difficulties  for  variety,  interest,  and  power.     Pupils 
in  this  grade  will  be  interested  in  proving  or  checking  results. 

C.  Multiplication,     i.  Use  multipliers  of  three  figures  with  zero 
in  units'  place.     2.  Multiplier  of  three  figures  with  zero  in  tens' 
place.     Prove  products  by  an  interchange  of  factors. 

D.  Division,     i.  Exercises  with  divisor  of  two  figures.     Divisor 
where  units'  figure  is  small,  as  31,  43,  51.    2.  Exercises  where  divisor 
consists  of  three  figures,  but  small  numbers  in  units'  and  tens'  place, 
as  321,  223.     3.  Divisors  of  two  figures  where  more  than  one  trial 
must  be  made  to  find  correct  quotient,  17,  27,  39.     4.  Where  cipher 
appears  in  quotient.     5.  Check  or  prove  division  by  multiplying 
divisor  and  quotient. 

III.  FRACTIONS 
Additions  and  subtractions  with  following  series: 

A.  Halves,  fourths,  eighths,  sixteenths. 

B.  Halves,  fourths,  sixths,  twelfths. 

C.  Thirds,  sixths,  ninths,  etc. 

D.  Mixed  numbers  containing  such  fractions.     (Objects  or  draw- 
ings used  when  necessary.) 

IV.  DECIMALS 

A.  Review  United  States  money  early,  that  it  may  be  used  in  drill 
problems  in  fundamental  processes. 

B.  Notation  and  numeration  of  decimals  containing  tenths  and 
hundredths. 

C.  Addition,    subtraction   of   decimals   containing   tenths   and 
hundredths. 

D.  Multiplication    and    division.     Multiplicand   and    dividend 
containing  tenths  and  hundredths. 

NOTE:   Work  to  be  constantly  correlated  with  common  fractions 
having  10  or  100  as  denominators. 

V.  MEASUREMENT 

A.  Linear  Measures.  —  i.  Extend  use  of  long  measure  to  measur- 
ing distances  in  schoolroom  and  schoolyard.     Give  idea  of  miles' 


THE    TEACHING    OF    ARITHMETIC  2OQ 

distance  between  well-known  places  in  city  (or  locality).  2.  Judg- 
ing of  distances  in  feet  or  yards  and  testing  estimate.  3.  Cost  of 
articles  sold  by  foot  or  yard. 

B.  Surface  Measures.  —  i.  Review  method  of  finding  number  of 
unit  squares  in  rectangle  by  multiplying  number  of  unit  squares  in 
a  row,  one  unit  wide,  by  number  of  rows.     2.  Find  number  of  square 
feet  in   blackboard,    schoolroom   floor.     3.  Ratios  of   rectangular 
figures,  one  dimension  common  to  both,  e.  g.,  a  rectangle  3  in.  long 
and  2  in.  wide  is  f  of  a  rectangle  4  in.  long  and  2  in.  wide. 

C.  Solid  Measure.  —  i.  By  use  of  unit  cubes,  pupils  build  solids 
of  given  dimensions,  e.g.,  pupils  led  to  see  that  a  solid  3  inches  long, 
2  inches  wide,  one  inch  high,  contains  2  rows  of  3   cubic  inches. 
A  solid  2  inches  high,  3  inches  long,  2  inches  wide,  contains  2  layers 
of  6  cubic  inches.     2.  Ratios  of  solids  (blocks)  where  two  dimensions 
are  the  same  in  each.     Use  prisms  and  cylinders  only  in  these  com- 
parisons.    3.  Fractional  parts  of  solids  made  up  of  cubic  inches. 

D.  Review  and  extend  use  of  tables  of  weights  and  measures: 
avoirdupois,  liquid  and  dry  measures,  United  States  money,  and 
time  measure.     Exercises  in  these,  bringing  out  simple  relations 
between  denominations  of  each  table;   e.  g.,  pupils,  by  measure- 
ment, see  that  pint  is  -|  of  quart,  |  of  gallon. 

VI.  PROBLEMS 

Oral  and  written  problems  associated  with  each  of  the  topics. 
Formal  explanations  not  required,  but  pupils  encouraged  to  tell 
reason  for  single  process  in  answer  to  definite  question.  Problems 
illustrated  by  drawings  or  objects  when  necessary.  Limited  use  of 
text-book  for  this  grade. 


WORK  OF  THE  FIFTH  SCHOOL  YEAR 

I.  NOTATION  AND  NUMERATION 

A.  Numbers  through  three  periods. 

B.  Numbers  containing  three  decimal  places. 

II.  FREQUENT  DRILLS  in  fundamental  operations,  with  proofs 
and  results. 


210  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

III.  FRACTIONS 

A .  Work  outlined  for  preceding  grades  reviewed. 

B.  Addition.  —  i.  Fractions    having    small   denominators.      2. 
Mixed  numbers,  fractions  having  small  denominators. 

C.  Subtraction.  —  i.  An  integer  from  a  mixed  number.     2.  A 
mixed  number  from  a  mixed  number,  the  fraction  in  the  subtra- 
hend less  than  that  of  minuend.     3.  A  mixed  number  from  an 
integer.     4.  A  mixed  number  from  a  mixed  number,  fraction  in 
subtrahend  larger  than  that  in  minuend. 

D.  Multiplication.  —  Simpler   processes   developed   by   divided 
lines,  disks,  or  rectangles,     i.  A  fraction  by  an  integer.     2.  A  mixed 
number  by  an  integer.     3.  An  integer  by  a  fraction.     4.  An  integer 
by  a  mixed  number.     5.  A  fraction  by  a  fraction.     6.  A  mixed 
number  by  a  mixed  number. 

E.  Division.  —  Processes  developed  objectively,     i.  A  fraction 
by  an  integer.     2.  An  integer  by  a  fraction.     3.  An  integer  by  a 
mixed  number.     4.  A  fraction  by  a  fraction.     5.  A  mixed  number 
by  a  mixed  number. 

IV.  DECIMALS 

A.  Notation  and  Numeration.    Notation  based  on  United  States 
money. 

B.  Relation  of  decimal  to  common  fraction  whose  denominator 
is  10,  100,  or  1000,  frequently  seen. 

C.  Fundamental    processes.      Decimals   limited    to   two,   three 
places,    i.  Addition  and  subtraction.     2.  Multiplication  and  divi- 
sion by  integers  showing  the  place  of  point  in  product  and  quotient. 

V.  MEASUREMENT  AND  DENOMINATE  NUMBERS 

A.  Square  Measure.  —  Mensuration  of  squares,  rectangles,  and 
right  triangles,  given  base  and  altitude,     i.  Perimeters  and  areas. 
Generalizations  for  these  processes  reached  by  folding  and  cutting 
of  paper,  or  by  drawings.     2.  Notation  carefully  taught. 

B.  Cubic  Measure.  —  Methods  suggested  in  preceding  grades 
leading  to  generalization  for  finding  —  i .   Lateral  surfaces  of  cubes, 
and    2.  Contents  of  prisms.     NOTE:  Incorrect  notation  should  be 
avoided. 

C.  Review  and  practice  under  tables  of  practical  value. 


THE    TEACHING    OF    ARITHMETIC  211 

VI.  MECHANICAL  DRILL  —  Oral  and  written. 

A .  Short  drill  every  day  on  fundamental  operations  or  in  topics 
taught  to  secure  accuracy  and  rapidity. 

B.  Business  Fractions:     e.  g.,  rinding  cost  of  articles  at  50^  ($J), 
at  2 si  ($1),  $1-50  ($f),  etc. 

VII.  BILLS  MADE  OUT  AND  RECEIPTED 

The  model  should  have  date,  name,  adress,  and  business  of  maker, 
name  and  address  of  debtor.  I  *ctual  transactions  imagined. 


Keeping  of  personal  accounts. 
VIII.  PROBLEMS. 

In  using  problems  from  text-books  eliminate  those  which  are  not 
of  practical  application.  Omit  problems  that  are  too  difficult  for 
grade.  Make  problems  suited  to  environment  of  pupils  if  they  do 
not  appear  in  text-book.  Reasons  for  operations  given,  but  formal 
explanations  not  required. 

WORK  OF  THE  SIXTH  SCHOOL  YEAR 

I.  COMMON  FRACTIONS 

A.  Addition  and  subtraction:  —  Practice  in  determining  com- 
mon denominators  by  inspection. 

B.  Multiplication  of  fractions.  —  For  cases,  see  work  of  Fifth 
Grade.      Use  cancellation  for  abbreviating  work.      (Cancellation 
shown  as  a  shorter  process.) 

C.  Division.  —  See  work  of  Fifth  Grade.     Use  method  of  in- 
verting  divisor. 

II.  DECIMAL  FRACTIONS 

A.  Notation  and  Numeration.  —  To  six  places.     Frequent  com- 
parisons with  common  fractional  form.     Test  knowledge  of  relative 
magnitude  of  decimals;  e.  g.,  Which  is  larger  .8  or  .7653? 

B.  Additions   and    Subtractions.  —  Decimals    containing   more 
than  three  places. 

C.  Multiplication.  —  Multiplier,  a  decimal  or  number  contain- 
ing decimal. 


212  TEACHING:     ITS   AIMS   AND   METHODS 

D.  Division.  —  Divisor,  a  decimal  or  number  containing  deci- 
mal. 

NOTE:   Use  simple  exercises  in  C  and  D. 

III.  PERCENTAGE 

A.  Drill    on  following    preliminary  work:  —  i.  Find   the  frac- 
tional part  of  a  number;  e.  g.,  what  is  J  of  21?    2.  Find  ratio  of  one 
number  to  another  given  number;   e.  g.,  what  is  the  ratio  of  14 
to  21? 

B.  Drill  on  the  following  per  cents  and  their  fraction  equiva- 
lents: — 

100%  75%  66§% 

50  60  33* 

25  70  i2j 

20  30  37$ 

10  40  i6f 
5 

C.  Introduce  the  following  cases  of  percentage  showing  relation 
to  same  cases  in  fractions:    i.  Find  the  percentage  (or  part)  when 
base  and  rate  are  given;  e.g.,  what  is  25%  of  24?     2.     Find  the 
rate  when  base  and  percentage  are  given;  e.  g.,  6  is  what  per  cent 
of  24? 

IV.  SIMPLE  INTEREST 

A.  Nature  and  purpose  illustrated. 

B.  Interest    calculated    for    years    and    months,    cancellation 
method,  e.  g.,  interest  on  $600  at  6%  for  3  years  and  4  months. 


p        io_ 

V.  MEASUREMENT 

A.  Denominate  Numbers.  —  i.  Consider  only  those  tables 
which  have  a  practical  application.  2.  Reductions  descending 
and  ascending  (to  reasonable  limit).  3.  Additions  and  subtrac- 
tions for  drill  only. 


THE    TEACHING    OF    ARITHMETIC  213 

B.  Mensuration.  —  i.  Perimeters  and  areas  of  rectangles  and 
triangles,  base  and  altitude  given. 

C.  Volumes  of  rectangular  prisms. 

D.  Simple  Problems  in  fencing,  painting,  paths,  frames,  plaster- 
ing, capacity  of  bins  and  tanks,  and  excavations. 

NOTE:  Pupils  are  taught  the  drawing  of  figures  and  illustrations 
to  convenient  scale. 

VI.  ROMAN  NOTATION  REVIEWED  AND  EXTENDED 

VII.  CAREFUL  SELECTION  OF  PROBLEMS  WITH  REFERENCE  TO 
MATURITY  OF  MINDS  OF  PUPILS  AND  PRACTICAL  VALUE 

Increasing  interest  in  analysis  should  be  expected,  but  pupils 
of  this  grade  are  more  interested  in  doing  than  explaining.  Pupils 
expected  to  make  clear  statement  of  how  problem  is  done. 

WORK  OF  THE  SEVENTH  SCHOOL  YEAR 

I.  BRIEF  REVIEW   OF  FUNDAMENTAL   PROCESSES,   FRACTIONS, 
AND  DECIMALS 

Proof  of  processes. 

II.  REVIEW  OF  DENOMINATE  NUMBERS 

Emphasizing  fractional  and  decimal  forms.  Useful  equivalents 
memorized  and  applied;  e.  g.,  cubic  inches  in  bushel,  cubic  inches  in 
gallon.  Weight  of  cubic  foot  of  water.  Gallon  of  water,  bushel 
of  wheat,  corn,  etc.  in  pounds. 

III.  MEASUREMENT 

A.  Mensuration  of  parallelograms,  triangles,  and  trapezoids. 

B.  Surfaces  and  contents  of  rectangular  prisms. 

C.  Ratio  of  circumference  of  circle  to  diameter  illustrated  and 
applied. 

D.  Area  of  circle  shown  to  be  equivalent  to  a  parallelogram 
whose    altitude    equals    radius,    and    whose    base    equals    semi- 
circumference. 

E.  Problems  in  plastering,  papering,  carpeting,  excavation  of 
cellars,  paving,  and  flooring.     Bricklaying  and  stonework.     Com- 
parison of  rules  found  in  text-books  with  those  used  by  artisans. 


214  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

IV.  PERCENTAGE 

A.  Review  cases  taught  in  sixth  grade. 

B.  Develop:  —  Find  the  base  when  percentage  (or  part)   and 
rate  are  given. 

V.  PROFIT  OR  Loss.  —  Show  that  these  are  percentage  applica- 
tions with  a  difference  in  names  of  terms  only. 

VI.  TRADE  DISCOUNTS.  —  Purpose  and  application  illustrated. 
Discount  on  bills  and  accounts. 

VII.  COMMISSION.  —  Show  how  cotton  or  some  product  used  in 
home  place  may  be  purchased  through  an  agent.     How  manufac- 
tured goods  are  sold  through  agent.     Show  that  commission  and 
percentage  are  the  same,  excepting  in  names  of  terms  used.     Practi- 
cal work  is  mostly  confined  to  one  problem.     Given  base  and  rate 
to  find  commission. 

VIII.  SIMPLE  INTEREST 

A.  Review  of  interest  leading  to  formula:   1=  pX  tX  r. 

B.  Six  per  cent  method  explained. 

C.  Interest  tables  used. 

IX.  PROBLEMS.  —  Pupils  in  this  grade  are  interested  in  problems 
and  accounts  pertaining  to  living  expenses,  home  industries,  food 
and   clothing,    supplies   and    transportation.     More   attention    to 
analyses  of  problems  is  given  in  this  grade  than  in  preceding  ones. 
Postal  Saving  Banks  explained. 

WORK  OF  THE  EIGHTH   SCHOOL  YEAR 

I.  BRIEF  REVIEW  OF  FUNDAMENTAL  PROCESSES.  —  Emphasize 
importance  of  proving  results.     Convenient  short  methods  used. 

II.  BUSINESS  ARITHMETIC 

A.  Percentage  and  its  applications  to  profit  or  loss  and  com- 
mission reviewed. 

B.  Interest  reviewed,  noting  difference  between  common  and 
exact  method. 

C.  Compound  interest  (to  limited  extent).     Its  use  in  savings 
banks.     Use  of  table  in  solving  problems. 


THE    TEACHING    OF   ARITHMETIC 

D.  Promissory  Note.  —  interest  and  discount.  —  i.  Under  what 
conditions  given?     2.  Illustrations  of  common  forms.     3.  What  is 
necessary  to  make  them   negotiable?    4.  Forms  of   indorsement. 
5.  Dishonoring  a  note.     6.  Interest  and  non-interest  bearing  notes, 

-  (a)  paid  at  maturity,  (b)  after  maturity,  (c)  before  maturity. 
7.  Protest  by  notary  public.  8.  Agency  of  the  bank  in  paying 
and  discounting  notes  explained. 

E.  Partial  payments.  —  The  United  States  rule  only  (limited 
to  few  exercises). 

F.  Domestic  Exchange  (optional).  —  i.  Uses  of  drafts.    2.  Con- 
ditions affecting  cost  of  drafts  giving  rise  to  premium  or  discount. 

3.   Sight  and  timed  rafts.     How  purchased.     4.   Calculation  of 
cost  only. 

G.  Stocks  and  Bonds.  —  i.  Formation  of  stock  company  simply 
illustrated  by  describing  organization  of  one  in  locality.     Charter. 
2.  Exercises  that  might  arise  in  connection  with  this  stock  company 
made  and  solved.     3.  How  stocks  are  bought  and  sold  through 
broker.     4.  Some   conditions  which  cause  stocks  to  rise  or  fall. 
5.  Distinction  between  legitimate  and  illegitimate  buying.     6.  Use 
of  tables  of  quotations  in  newspapers  as  a  source  of  problems. 
7.  Description  of  stock  exchange. 

III.  RATIO  AND  SIMPLE  PROPORTION.  —  Its  identity  of  propor- 
tion with  simple  equation.     Use  of  x  for  missing  term. 

IV.  TAXES 

A .  Direct  —  the  connection  between  this  topic  and  the  support 
of  local  government  and  state  explained.     Pupils  provided  with 
tax  bills  that  show  "budget." 

B.  Duties  and  Customs.     The  connection  between  this  topic 
and  the  support  of  government  (Federal)  illustrated  (limited  to 
few  exercises). 

V.  INSURANCE.  —  Topic  illustrated  by  cancelled  policies.     Fire 
and  Life  Insurance  briefly  treated. 

VI.  MENSURATION  (CONCRETE  GEOMETRY) 

A .  Surfaces  of  plane  figures  reviewed. 

B.  Lateral  surfaces  of  solids  illustrated  and  found. 

C.  Volumes  of  prism,  cylinder,  pyramid,  cone,  and  sphere. 


216  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

VII.  SQUARE  ROOT  (LIMITED  USE) 

A.  Process  explained. 

B.  Applications  in  problems. 

VIII.  METRIC  SYSTEM.  —  Sufficient   study   of   this   system   to 
prepare  for  work  in  natural  sciences.     Actual  use  of  weights  and 
measures. 

IX.  PROBLEMS.  —  Pupils   in   this   grade   will   be   interested   in 
problems    dealing    with    agriculture,    factory    conditions,    mining, 
lumbering,  transportation,  statistics  of  weather  bureau,  population, 
and  extent  of  territory.     Cost  of  heating,  lighting,  and  furnishing 
a  home.     Cost  of  food  and  clothing  for  family.     In  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  greater  power  in  analysis  should  be  developed. 

X.  LITERAL  ARITHMETIC 

A.  Change  from  the  decimal  to  literal  notation  should  be  made 
in  exercises  in   mensuration,  in  generalizing,  in  percentage  prob- 
lems, and  in  interest. 

B.  The  use  of  x  should  be   made  in    solving  problems  where 
time  and  aynalsis  will  be  saved.     In  problems  of  percentage  and 
proportion  its  use  should  be  encouraged. 


NOTE:    The  order  stated  in  above  outline  is  not  necessarily  the 
order  of  presentation. 


CHAPTER   XV 

INSTRUCTION  IN  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE 

The  Duty  of  the  School  toward  Public  Health.  —  That 
good  health  is  a  public  asset  is  being  realized  now 
more  than  ever  before.  Therefore  the  problems  of 
clean  streets,  public  baths,  pure  water,  sanitation, 
sewage  disposal,  pure  foods,  and  safeguarding  against 
contagious  diseases,  are  receiving  a  great  deal  of  atten- 
tion. As  a  result  the  average  duration  of  human  life 
has  been  extended,  and  men  are  enjoying  greater  com- 
forts, are  healthier  and  happier.  Tables  of  mortality 
a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  show  that  more  than  40% 
of  the  mortality  was  of  children  under  five  years  of 
age.  Recent  tables  show  that  this  terrible  death  rate 
has  been  reduced  to  20%  of  all  the  deaths.  Rowe 
says,  "In  Chicago,  statistics  for  1894  show  that  one 
child  out  of  every  twenty  of  five  years  and  younger 
died  during  this  period.  In  the  next  five  years  the 
death  rate  was  only  one  out  of  every  115,  in  the  suc- 
ceeding ten  years  the  death  rate  was  one  out  of  every 
322." 

The  people  are  being  educated  in  matters  of  health, 
food,  cleanliness,  and  sanitation,  so  that  many  things 
that  were  treated  with  indifference  a  few  years  ago 
would  not  be  tolerated  now.  Inasmuch  as  it  is  so 
largely  a  matter  of  education,  the  duty  of  the  school 
becomes  apparent. 


218  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

Most  states  of  the  Union  have  laws  requiring  instruc- 
tion in  the  public  school  in  the  effects  of  alcohol  and 
narcotics  upon  the  human  system.  There  should  be 
equal  stress  laid  upon  teaching  cleanliness,  the  nutri- 
tive value  and  nature  of  foods,  and  upon  general  sani- 
tation. Intemperance  very  often  is  caused  by  men 
being  the  victims  of  poor  food,  badly  prepared.  The 
American  people  are  woefully  lacking  in  knowledge  of 
food  values  and  what  might  be  called  the  harmony 
of  foods.  We  eat  lobster  salad,  cucumbers,  and  radishes, 
washing  the  whole  down  with  chocolate,  and  then  top 
off  with  ice  cream  and  rich  cake.  Think  of  the  combi- 
nations we  mix  together  in  our  poor,  abused  stomachs. 
And  then  we  wonder  why  most  of  us  are  dyspeptic, 
and  why  so  many  die  of  acute  indigestion.  We  are 
ignorant  of  the  simplest  laws  of  food  combination  and 
are  paying  for  it  with  chronic  dyspepsia,  debilitated 
digestive  organs,  and  consequent  anaemia  or  poverty 
of  blood,  and  a  final  breaking  down  of  the  nervous 
system.  And  it  is  not  the  fatal  results  that  are  the 
most  serious,  but  rather  the  decreased  power  of  resist- 
ing disease  and  the  diminished  efficiency  in  the  affairs 
of  life  that  should  cause  the  most  concern. 

It  cannot  be  the  purpose  here  to  treat  of  the  anatomy 
of  the  human  body  or  of  such  topics  as  belong  to  a 
work  on  physiology.  The  purpose  rather  is  to  present 
the  material  that  every  teacher  can  teach,  and  every 
child  should  know,  with  suggestions  as  to  the  manner 
of  giving  such  instruction.  Whenever  there  is  efficient 
medical  inspection  of  the  schools  it  may  be  expected 
that  the  physical  well-being  of  the  children  will  be 
properly  cared  for.  As  yet,  however,  comparatively 


INSTRUCTION   IN  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE         2IQ 

few  schools  have  such  inspection.  Where  it  has  been 
introduced,  its  limitations  are  such  that  it  cannot  be 
wholly  efficient,  hence  the  individual  teacher  must  be 
interested  and  informed  upon  this  subject. 

i.  Defective  Eyesight.  —  There  are  pupils  in  almost 
every  schoolroom  who  are  afflicted  with  some  defect 
of  vision.  Rowe  says,  "  Careful  records  have  been 
made  in  cities  of  our  own  country  and  abroad,  and  it 
has  been  estimated  that  the  percentage  of  poor  eyes 
increases  from  grade  to  grade."  He  thinks  that  about 
20%  of  the  children  in  the  upper  grades  have  some 
weakness  of  the  eye  against  3  %  of  those  entering  school. 

It  certainly  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  discover 
these  defects,  to  guard  against  them,  and  to  prevent 
their  increase.  At  any  rate,  the  teacher  must  not  be 
a  party  to  the  creation  of  such  defects.  She  should 
know  when  there  is  sufficient  light,  should  see  that  it 
comes  from  the  right  direction,  and  should  not  allow 
pupils  to  sit  directly  facing  the  sun's  rays.  She  should 
prevent  the  use  of  too  fine  a  print,  should  see  that  the 
ventilation  is  good,  and  should  jealously  guard  against 
unsanitary  conditions.  Moreover,  she  should  instruct 
the  pupils  as  to  the  value  of  eyesight,  and  should 
explain  how  it  is  endangered  in  reading  by  twilight  or 
other  obscure  illumination,  by  forcing  the  eyes  to  read 
when  they  are  tired,  through  the  use  of  cigarettes,  and 
the  reading  of  fine  print. 

She  should  aid  them  in  securing  glasses  when  these 
are  needed.  I  once  observed  that  a  boy  in  reading 
held  the  book  very  close  to  his  eyes.  Indeed,  he  was 
so  near-sighted  that  he  was  compelled  to  move  the  book 
from  side  to  side  in  reading  a  line.  I  visited  his 


220  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

parents  and  suggested  that  he  should  wear  glasses. 
"Why,  he  is  too  young  to  wear  glasses;  he  is  only 
twelve  years  old!"  they  exclaimed.  And  it  was  with 
difficulty  that  I  convinced  them  that  the  use  of  glasses 
was  not  a  question  of  age.  They  finally  had  his  eyes 
examined,  and  when  he  secured  glasses  not  only  could 
he  read  naturally  but  all  his  other  school  work  im- 
proved. Think  of  the  new  and  extended  world  that 
was  opened  up  to  that  boy  within  the  new  horizon 
which  his  glasses  made  for  him.  If  the  child  complains 
of  frequent  headaches,  there  is  ground  for  suspicion 
that  there  is  something  wrong  with  his  eyes,  and  he 
should  be  examined  by  an  oculist.  Rowe  wisely 
remarks,  "  Where  we  are  perforce  obliged  to  teach  in 
conditions  not  ideal,  we  should  be  all  the  more  careful 
to  see  that  every  favoring  condition  possible  be  given 
the  children  and  that  frequent  tests  be  made  to  dis- 
cover causes  of  visual  defects  which  may  be  just  devel- 
oping." The  teacher  should  not  only  give  attention 
to  individual  cases,  but  she  should  also  watch  all 
schoolroom  conditions,  correcting  those  that  are  bad 
and  interesting  the  proper  authorities  when  there  are 
evils  to  be  corrected.  The  teacher  may  be  assured  of 
the  support  of  parents  in  a  matter  of  such  vital  impor- 
tance to  their  children  if  they  can  only  be  brought  to 
understand  the  situation. 

2.  Defective  Hearing. —  Cases  of  defective  hearing 
are  probably  more  common  than  those  of  defective 
eyesight.  It  is  pretty  well  established  that  fully 
twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  pupils  in  the  schools  have 
some  defect  in  hearing  in  one  or  both  ears.  Very  often 
the  teacher  is  unaware  of  such  defects,  and  oftener  still 


INSTRUCTION   IN   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE          221 

the  child  is  unaware  of  it.  Indeed,  most  persons  are 
reluctant  to  admit  that  they  do  not  hear  well.  A 
teacher  reprimanded  a  boy  of  sixteen  who  was  de- 
cidedly deaf  for  failing  to  respond  to  a  command  given 
in  a  general  gymnastic  exercise.  Reflecting  that  the 
boy  probably  had  not  heard  he  apologized  in  the  words, 
"  Edwin,  excuse  me,  I  forgot  that  you  are  deaf."  The 
boy  dropped  into  his  seat  and  sobbed  like  a  child,  and 
when  afterward  his  teacher  told  him  that  he  had  not 
meant  to  hurt  his  feelings,  the  boy  replied,  "I  know 
that  you  didn't,  but  I  was  never  before  told  that  I 
am  deaf.  I  feared  it  and  you  have  simply  confirmed 
what  I  feared.  I  now  know  that  I  am  really  deaf  and 
that  is  what  broke  me  down."  Evidences  of  poor 
hearing  are  found  in  the  strained  attitude  in  listening, 
in  the  necessity  of  repeating  questions,  in  the  wrong 
answers  given,  in  the  fatigue  shown,  and  in  the  failure 
to  progress  in  the  work. 

Of  course  these  may  not  be  absolute  proofs,  for  the 
child  may  have  been  inattentive,  or  may  not  have 
comprehended.  But  repeated  acts  of  the  above  nature 
would  certainly  justify  the  suspicion  that  the  child  had 
not  heard.  In  such  cases  he  should  be  subjected  to 
special  tests  for  hearing,  many  of  which  are  quite 
within  the  resources  of  the  teacher.  Rowe  gives  a  very 
simple  test  which  any  teacher  can  make.1  "Place  the 
child  on  one  side  of  the  room,  facing  the  wall.  Have 
him  close  one  ear  and  shut  the  eyes.  Take  a  position 
a  little  to  the  side  of  the  ear  to  be  tested,  and  by  a 

1  Rowe  gives  excellent  and  full  descriptions  of  tests  both  for  the  eye 
and  the  ear  in  his  work,  "The  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child,"  The  Macmil- 
lan  Co.,  New  York. 


222  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

slow  movement  bring  a  watch  from  a  position  five  or 
six  feet  to  one  side,  toward  the  ear.  The  child  is  to 
tell  you  as  soon  as  he  hears  the  ticking.  If  a  special 
noise  arises,  wait  until  the  disturbing  sound  has  ceased. 
Try  until  the  results  are  consistent. "  It  is  important, 
however,  that  the  teacher  shall  know  what  the  normal 
distance  is  for  the  particular  watch  in  order  to  deter- 
mine whether  or  not  the  child's  hearing  is  normal. 
This  can  be  found  by  experimenting  with  the  watch 
upon  a  person  known  to  possess  normal  hearing. 
Simple  tests  of  this  kind  will  be  sufficient  to  detect 
the  most  marked  cases,  those  that  need  especial  atten- 
tion in  seating  and  in  instruction. 

Rowe  further  suggests,  "As  over  90%  of  the  cases 
can  be  cured,  the  parents  should  be  urged  to  have  the 
child  examined  by  a  physician.  Many  persons  have 
become  permanently  deaf,  or  partially  so,  who  might 
have  been  easily  cured  and  thus  have  been  spared  the 
affliction,  had  an  intelligent  teacher  or  parent  taken 
the  matter  in  hand  in  time."  As  so  many  parents 
are  ignorant  of  these  matters,  there  is  all  the  more 
reason  for  the  teacher  to  be  on  her  guard. 

3.  Contagious  Diseases.  --  The  most  common  conta- 
gious diseases  of  children  are  scarlet  fever,  measles, 
diphtheria,  chicken  pox,  mumps,  whooping-cough,  and 
tuberculosis.  The  school  offers  a  most  dangerous 
medium  for  the  spread  of  disease,  because  the  children 
come  from  all  parts  of  the  community,  because  they 
mingle  freely  within  the  narrow  confines  of  the  school- 
room and  the  playground,  and  because  of  the  common 
use  of  books  and  materials.  Hence  most  stringent 
rules,  designed  to  prevent  the  spread  of  disease,  should 


INSTRUCTION   IN   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE         223 

be  followed.  These  conditions  necessitate  considerable 
knowledge  of  the  symptoms  of  the  ordinary  diseases 
of  children  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Of  course  she 
cannot  be  expected  to  have  the  expert  knowledge  of 
a  physician,  but  she  can  take  measures  to  safeguard 
the  pupils  and  the  community.  The  usual  and  most 
easily  recognized  symptoms  of  many  of  the  children's 
diseases  are  headache,  flushed  face,  high  temperature, 
quickened  pulse,  dull  eyes,  sore  throat,  and  general 
lassitude.  Sometimes  the  child  is  peevish,  ill-natured 
or  insubordinate.  When  satisfied  that  there  is  some- 
thing wrong  with  the  child,  the  teacher  should  send 
him  home.  Nor  is  her  duty  done  when  the  danger  is 
removed  from  the  school.  Report  should  promptly 
be  made  to  the  board  of  health,  the  board  of  education, 
or  some  available  authority,  so  that  the  case  may  be 
followed  up.  Of  course  the  parents  should  be  notified, 
but  in  many  cases  this  would  not  be  sufficient,  for  it 
is  well  known  that  many  parents  will  conceal  the 
presence  of  a  contagious  disease  in  order  to  escape  the 
inconvenience  of  quarantine. 

If  there  is  a  school  physician  or  a  school  nurse,  the 
matter  is  very  much  simplified  for  the  teacher,  for  they 
will  assume  the  responsibility.  But  we  have  seen  that 
these  important  factors  are  still  lacking  in  many  schools; 
therefore  the  teacher  must  be  prepared  to  meet  emer- 
gencies. Precaution  also  must  be  taken  to  prevent 
children  from  returning  to  school  until  all  danger  of 
contagion  has  been  removed.  A  physician's  certificate 
should  be  required  to  determine  this.  There  is  no  more 
important  duty  that  the  teacher  can  perform  for  the  pub- 
lic than  this  one  of  watching  children's  health. 


224  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

4.  Food  and  Eating.  --What  better  preparation  for 
life  in  a  real  and  practical  sense  can  a  man  or  a  woman 
have  than  a  knowledge  of  foods,  their  preparation, 
their  nutritive  value,  and  their  adaptability  for  easy 
digestion  and  absorption.  I  have  already  shown  how 
ignorant  we  are  upon  this  matter  and  pointed  out  the 
evil  consequences  that  grow  out  of  that  ignorance. 
Instruction  concerning  foods  is  an  essential  part  of  the 
German  school  course.  A  teacher  in  Leipsic  had  before 
him  a  class  of  six-year-old  boys.  The  subject  was 
bread.  The  teacher  discussed  the  kinds  of  bread, 
pointed  out  their  nutritive  values,  and  explained  how 
they  should  be  eaten.  "How  old  must  bread  (Scftwarz- 
brod)  be  when  eaten? "  was  asked.  u  Twenty  -four 
hours  old  at  least/'  was  the  answer  of  the  children. 
Hot-breads  have  no  place  in  the  German  diet.  Stomach 
diseases  are  rare  among  that  people.  Is  there  not 
an  evident  connection  between  these  two  facts?  The 
children  were  taught  to  eat  slowly,  to  masticate  well, 
and  not  to  drink  during  the  meal  as  a  means  of  hasten- 
ing the  swallowing.  Overton  says,1  "A  whole  train 
of  evils  follows  intemperate  eating.  When  food  is 
swallowed  in  large  lumps  instead  of  being  masticated 
to  a  thin  gruel,  too  little  saliva  is  mixed  with  it.  It 
reaches  the  stomach  too  dry,  and  so  a  large  amount  of 
gastric  juice  is  needed.  But  the  saliva  is  the  natural 
stimulant  to  the  flow  of  juice,  and  if  it  is  small  in 
amount,  the  gastric  juice  does  not  flow  in  sufficient 
quantity,  and  food  is  not  well  digested/'  He  further 
adds,  "A  glass  of  ice  water  may  remain  perceptibly 
cold  in  the  stomach  for  from  one-quarter  to  one-half 
1  "Applied  Physiology. " 


INSTRUCTION   IN   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE         225 

an  hour,  and  its  effects  upon  the  movements  of  diges- 
tion may  last  much  longer."  It  has  been  said  that 
more  people  suffer  from  overeating  than  from  eating 
too  little. 

The  following  rules  for  eating  are  suggested:  "Chew 
a  mouthful  to  paste  and  swallow  it  before  taking  an- 
other/ "Stop  as  soon  as  the  taste  of  plain  food 
begins  to  fail."  "Allow  four  or  five  hours  to  elapse 
before  eating  again."  Added  suggestions  by  Overton 
are  worthy  of  consideration: 

"i.    Eating  food  for  mere  pleasure  is  intemperance. 

2.  Eating  too  much,  too  rapidly,  or  too  often  is  in- 
temperance. 

3.  As  a  result  of  intemperate  eating,  acid  fermenta- 
tion often  occurs  in  the  stomach,  producing  discomfort 
and  sickness. 

4.  Hunger  indicates  the  need  of    food,    and  taste 
indicates  the  kind. 

5.  When  only  plain  food  is  eaten,  these  two  signs  are 
correct  guides  in  eating." 

5.  Temperance  Instruction.  —  Whether  or  not  alcohol 
is  a  food  is  a  disputed  point.  That  it  is  a  great  danger 
and  is  often  an  evil  to  the  human  race  is  not  disputed. 
Although  it  is  not  practicable  to  enter  upon  a  scien- 
tific discussion  of  alcohol  with  children  in  the  public 
school,  it  is  clear  that  the  evils  and  dangers  connected 
with  its  use  as  a  beverage  can  and  should  be  pointed 
out  in  language  that  they  can  understand. 

Such  instruction  is  within  the  province  of  the  school 
from  both  a  physical  and  a  moral  standpoint,  and  it 
is  its  duty  as  well  to  inform  the  pupils  as  to  the  effect 
of  strong  drink  upon  the  human  system  and  as  to  the 


226  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

danger  of  forming  the  drink  habit.  While  little  good 
may  be  done  from  a  scientific  treatment  of  alcohol 
with  children,  there  are  certain  lessons  that  may  effec- 
tively be  taught.  These  are: 

1.  Alcohol  is  a  poison  that  often  attacks  the  nerve 
centers,  affects  the  brain,  undermines  the  constitution, 
and  makes  a  wreck  of  men. 

2.  It  is  apt  to  destroy  the  will  power,  making  its 
victim    incapable    of    continued    successful    and    useful 
occupation. 

3.  It   incapacitates   for    work,   thus   compelling  em- 
ployers of  labor  to  reject  persons  who  drink. 

4.  It   often   robs   a   man   of  ambition,   making   him 
useless  to  society  and  often  a  burden  upon  it. 

5.  Its    continued   use   develops   an    evil    habit    that 
makes  a  man  a  slave,  and  which  is  very  difficult  to 
break. 

6.  It   destroys   the   moral   sense,    often   making   the 
father  cruel  to  his  family  and  indifferent  to  the  most 
sacred  obligations. 

7.  It  often  leads  to  crime,  as  a  large  proportion  of 
the  inmates  of  prisons  trace  their  downfall  directly  or 
indirectly  to  the  influence  of  strong  drink. 

8.  Experiments   show   that   even   if   taken   in   small 
quantities    it    diminishes    the    efficiency,    destroys    the 
power  of  sustained  effort,  lessens  the  ability  to  resist 
disease,  degrades  the  moral  sense,  and  shortens  life. 

9.  It  is  a  great  danger,  claiming  many  victims  every 
year,   destroying  homes,   and  debasing,   making  weak, 
incapable,   and    often   worthless    the   unfortunate   who 
have  been  caught  in  its  toils. 

Surely  if  the  school  is  to  prepare  children  for  com- 


INSTRUCTION   IN  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE         227 

plete  living,  for  efficiency,  if  it  is  to  give  them  the 
ability  to  adjust  themselves  to  life,  it  if  is  to  bring  out 
the  best  that  is  in  them  in  order  to  make  them  master- 
ful in  their  environment,  it  must  teach  them  concerning 
the  effect  and  danger  of  strong  drink.  Discussions 
of  lessons  like  the  above  will  have  a  greater  influence 
upon  the  temperance  of  future  men  and  women  than 
a  purely  academic  treatment  of  the  nature  of  alcohol, 
a  study  of  the  anatomy  of  the  human  body,  or  even 
an  exhibition  of  pictures  of  the  stomach  diseased  by 
alcohol.  Temperance  instruction  in  the  public  schools, 
which  has  been  carried  on  for  the  past  quarter  of  a 
century  has  not  done  so  much  to  check  the  drink- 
evil  as  was  prophesied  and  devoutly  hoped  for.  This, 
too,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  no  class  of  people  in  the 
United  States  more  strongly  inculcates  temperance, 
both  in  theory  and  practice,  than  the  more  than  half 
a  million  school  teachers. 

Temperance  text-books  have  been  placed  in  their 
hands,  and  these  they  have  faithfully  attempted  to 
follow,  but  as  emphasis  in  these  books  has  been  put 
upon  the  scientific  phase  of  the  question,  rather  than 
upon  the  moral  and  practical  side,  it  has  been  difficult 
to  interest  the  children  in  the  subject.  A  discussion 
of  such  topics  as  have  just  been  outlined  would  be 
interesting,  would  find  abundant  illustrations,  and  would 
be  real  temperance  instruction.  The  scientific  study 
of  alcohol  belongs  to  maturer  students  who  can  utilize 
the  laboratory. 

6.  Dangers  of  Narcotics.  —  Most  boys  at  some  period 
of  their  lives,  usually  at  about  twelve  to  fourteen  years 
°f  aSe>  £et  a  notion  to  smoke.  Stringent  laws  against 


228  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

the  sale  of  cigarettes  to  young  boys  have  failed  in  their 
purpose.  Boys  think  it  is  smart  or  manly  to  use 
tobacco.  They  see  other  boys  of  their  age  doing  it; 
they  are  at  an  age  when  they  crave  something  new; 
they  have  a  desire  to  imitate  others,  especially  older  boys. 
They  are  therefore  willing  to  undergo  a  painful  appren- 
ticeship in  order  to  acquire  the  ability  to  use  tobacco. 
No  one  can  understand  this  desire  and  this  heroism 
unless  that  one  has  been  a  boy.  The  approach  to 
this  question  should  be  radically  different  from  the 
approach  to  the  drink  question,  and  here  is  where  many 
teachers  have  made  a  mistake.  In  a  sense,  narcotics 
and  drink  belong  in  the  same  class.  Both,  so  far  as 
the  child  is  concerned,  form  habits  hard  to  break, 
lower  moral  standards,  undermine  the  health,  prevent 
growth,  and  weaken  the  intellect.  But  to  put  the 
two  on  the  same  basis  defeats  all  legitimate  efforts  to 
restrain  boys  from  the  use  of  tobacco.  The  use  of 
strong  drink,  if  not  an  evil  in  itself,  is  a  great  danger 
to  the  individual,  and  often  affects  many  others.  With 
most  adults  tobacco  is  not  an  evil,  for  it  affects  neither 
their  health  nor  their  moral  life.  If  it  is  detrimental 
to  the  health,  no  man  has  a  right  to  use  it  any  more 
than  he  has  a  right  to  eat  any  kind  of  food  that  is 
detrimental.  There  is  just  as  much  sin  in  the  one  case 
as  in  the  other  and  no  more.  But  with  growing 
children  tobacco  affects  the  brain,  the  heart,  the  lungs, 
the  sight,  the  smell,  the  voice,  and  the  nerves.  It 
attacks  the  nerve  centers,  causing  weakness  of  memory, 
and  it  prevents  physical  growth.  The  term  "  cigarette 
fiend "  unfortunately  is  so  well  known  and  finds  such 
frequent  illustration  in  the  boys  and  young  men  about 


INSTRUCTION   IN   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE 


229 


our  towns,  that  it  needs  no  description.  Too  much 
cannot  be  done  against  this  evil. 

I  have  said  that  there  is  a  difference  to  be  made  in 
combating  the  drink  and  the  tobacco  evil.  The  former 
is  a  danger  to  all;  the  latter  is  a  danger  to  children, 
but  not  necessarily  a  danger  to  adults. 

It  is  of  no  use  to  tell  the  boy  that  smoking  is  a  sin. 
He  will  not  believe  it,  for  perhaps  his  father  and  many 
other  men  who  have  his  confidence  smoke,  and  the 
teacher  has  no  right  to  destroy  that  confidence.  A 
gentleman  who  has  three  sons  took  each  of  his  boys, 
when  they  had  reached  the  age  at  which  most  boys 
want  to  experiment  with  tobacco,  and  talked  to  them 
after  this  manner:  "  Charles,  I  would  rather  you 
would  not  smoke  until  you  have  reached  your  growth. 
Tobacco  is  bad  for  growing  boys.  When  you  have 
become  a  man,  you  can  do  as  you  please."  He  also 
gave  examples  of  the  bad  effects  of  tobacco  among 
boys  they  knew.  He  made  no  apology  for  his  own 
habit  of  smoking,  for  there  was  none  to  make,  and  his 
boys  did  not  expect  any.  None  of  his  boys  smoked, 
and  two  of  them  have  completed  college  without 
acquiring  the  habit.  Another  gentleman  followed  the 
practice  of  giving  boys  in  whom  he  was  interested 
twenty-five  dollars  upon  reaching  their  majority  if  they 
had  abstained  from  tobacco.  If  they  chose  to  take 
it  up  after  that,  it  did  not  disturb  him  in  the  least,  for 
they  had  passed  the  point  of  danger  from  its  use. 

To  repeat,  then,  and  to  summarize  in  a  word,  the  atti- 
tude that  the  teacher  or  the  parent  should  take  in  regard 
to  narcotics  is  that  their  use  is  bad  for  the  physical 
growth  of  the  young.  Abundant  examples  of  the  truth 


230  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

of  this  can  be  found  in  every  school  and  every  com- 
munity. On  the  other  hand,  the  use  of  strong  drink 
is  a  danger  and  an  evil  to  people  of  all  ages,  old  as 
well  as  young.  Such  distinction  will  be  likely  to  make 
the  instruction  in  both  far  more  effective  than  it  is 
when  both  alike  are  classed  as  evils.  By  frequent 
talks,  by  the  use  of  concrete  illustrations,  the  teacher 
can  do  much  to  inculcate  real  temperance;  far  more, 
indeed,  than  is  being  accomplished  by  following  the 
courses  marked  out  in  works  on  temperance  physiology. 
It  seems  to  me  that  this  is  the  proper  method  to  pur- 
sue, not  only  with  alcohol,  but  also  with  the  other 
topics  that  fall  under  the  head  of  physiology  and 
hygiene.  The  teacher  should  possess  a  handbook  on 
physiology  and  hygiene,  for  personal  use,  in  which 
details  which  cannot  be  presented  in  a  book  of  this 
kind  are  treated.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  school  to  take 
the  lead  in  these  matters,  for  they  affect  the  well-being 
not  alone  of  the  pupils  but  also  of  the  people  of  the 
community  in  general.  Hence  teachers  must  be  intelli- 
gent, informed,  and  interested  in  this  question.  Many 
of  these  things  cannot  be  specified  in  a  course  of  study. 
But  if  the  teacher  is  impressed  with  her  duty  and  re- 
sponsibility in  these  matters,  and  is  active  in  promul- 
gating such  lessons,  she  may  be  a  great  blessing  to  the 
people  whom  she  serves.  In  a  later  chapter  I  shall 
discuss  more  fully  foods  and  other  topics  connected 
with  health  and  hygiene. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING 

The  Change  in  Industrial  Conditions.  —  There  is  unrest 
in  the  public  mind  with  reference  to  the  product  of 
our  schools.  This  shows  itself  in  the  press,  in  maga- 
zine articles,  in  platform  discussions,  and  in  the  direct 
criticisms  of  parents.  That  this  criticism  is  not  always 
just  has  already  been  shown,  but  the  most  thoughtful 
educators  recognize  that  the  schools  have  not  fully 
kept  apace  with  the  demands  of  the  times.  Teachers 
who  understand  the  problem  of  education  and  the  new 
and  increased  burdens  laid  upon  the  school  are  earnestly 
seeking  to  correct  mistakes,  and  to  give  the  youth  of 
our  land  those  things  which  will  best  prepare  them  to 
cope  successfully  with  the  problems  which  our  new 
and  strenuous  civilization  presents. 

More  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  Dr.  James 
McAlister  prophetically  said,  "I  am  fully  persuaded, 
therefore,  that  some  radical  changes  will  have  to  be 
made  in  the  character  of  our  public  education.  I  must 
repeat  again  that  these  changes  do  not  mean  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  classical  system.  The  demand  is  simply 
that  the  primary  schools  shall  be  made  to  conform  to 
the  existing  necessities  of  the  people,  and,  side  by  side 
with  higher  institutions  of  learning,  there  shall  be 
established  schools  where  the  sciences,  in  their  relations 
to  the  arts  and  industries,  shall  be  made  specific 


232  TEACHING:     ITS   AIMS   AND   METHODS 

branches  of  instruction  and  training."  This  pioneer 
appeal  has  not  been  without  effect,  as  is  evidenced  by 
the  introduction  of  manual  training  very  generally  as  a 
part  of  the  curriculum  of  the  elementary  schools,  by 
the  founding  of  manual  training  high  schools,  and  by 
the  establishment  of  many  industrial  schools. 

We  say  that  modern  life  has  injected  many  new 
problems  into  the  work  of  education.  Under  former 
conditions  the  child  had  plenty  of  manual  exercise. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  people  lived  in  the  country 
and  gained  their  livelihood  with  their  hands.  The  boy 
made  his  own  playthings  —  his  sled,  his  water-wheel, 
his  top,  and  his  bow  and  arrows.  He  knew  the  use 
of  tools  and  early  became  acquainted  with  the  many 
requirements  of  farm  and  country  life.  His  intimate 
acquaintance  with  animals  awakened  broad  sympathies 
for  the  weak  and  taught  him  responsibility  to  depend- 
ent creatures.  It  thus  developed  his  life  and  character 
and  opened  to  him  a  knowledge  never  to  be  gained 
from  the  books.  His  experiences  made  him  resourceful, 
inventive,  originative,  industrious,  and  economical. 
They  formed  for  him  a  sturdy  frame,  taught  him  to 
accept  responsibility  and  faithfully  discharge  it,  and 
gave  him  a  true  estimate  of  life.  What  wonder  that 
the  farm  has  produced  more  than  its  proportion  of  the 
great  men  of  the  country,  —  the  leaders  not  only  in 
husbandry,  but  also  in  the  fields  of  industry,  com- 
merce, and  business,  in  the  arena  of  political  life,  and 
in  the  great  professions. 

"The  perfectly  educated  man,"  says  Dr.  McAlister, 
"is  he  whose  facile  hand  follows  obediently  the  clear 
and  ready  promptings  of  a  well-disciplined  brain.  The 


THE   IMPORTANCE   OF  MANUAL  TRAINING  233 

hand  is  the  most  marvelous  instrument  in  the  world;  it 
is  the  necessary  complement  of  the  mind  in  dealing  with 
matter  in  all  its  varied  forms.  It  is  the  hand  that 
rounded  Peter's  dome;  it  is  the  hand  that  carved  those 
statues  in  marble  and  bronze,  that  painted  those 
pictures  in  palace  and  church  which  we  travel  into 
distant  lands  to  admire;  it  is  the  hand  that  builds  the 
ships  which  sail  the  seas,  laden  with  the  commerce  of 
the  world;  it  is  the  hand  that  constructs  the  machinery 
which  moves  the  busy  industries  of  this  age  of  steam; 
it  is  the  hand  that  enables  the  mind  to  realize  in  a 
thousand  ways  its  highest  imaginings,  its  profoundest 
reasonings,  its  most  practical  inventions.  .  .  .  Why 
should  not  an  organ  which  forms  so  vital  a  part  of 
man's  being  receive  a  due  share  of  attention  in  pre- 
paring him  for  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  citi- 
zenship?" 

Definition  of  Manual  Training.  —  The  need  of  manual 
training  is  quite  generally  recognized,  but  there  is 
still  much  haziness  as  to  what  is  meant  by  the  term. 
It  has  been  defined  by  some  as  the  acquirement  of  mere 
dexterity.  According  to  this  view  penmanship,  han- 
dling the  knife  and  fork  in  eating,  dressing  one's  self, 
playing  games,  a  thousand  and  one  other  activities, 
are  manual  training.  Surely  manual  training  must 
mean  something  more  than  the  mere  gaining  of  control 
of  the  hand.  The  purpose  of  manual  training  is  to 
develop  the  motor  activities,  to  furnish  the  child  with  a 
knowledge  of  the  materials  he  is  to  use,  to  teach  him  the 
processes  of  construction,  and  to  give  him  dexterity  in 
the  use  of  tools  and  in  manipulating  materials.  Skilful 
use  of  the  hand  is  not  sufficient;  there  must  be  added 


234  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

a  knowledge  of  material.  We  are  daily  called  upon  to 
judge  the  value  of  material  things,  —  of  woods  in  the 
furniture  we  buy,  in  the  houses  we  build,  in  the  imple- 
ments we  construct;  of  metals  in  our  tools,  our  machin- 
ery, our  edifices;  of  the  earth  itself  in  its  soils,  its 
rocks,  its  clay  materials,  and  its  sand.  Ability  cor- 
rectly to  judge  enables  us  to  appreciate  the  adapta- 
bility and  value  of  things  in  meeting  the  purposes  for 
which  they  are  intended.  Thus  manual  training  in- 
volves knowledge  as  well  as  dexterity. 

" Manual  training,"  says  Dr.  McAlister,  "aims  at 
general  results.  Its  purpose  is  to  develop  human  beings 
on  the  executive  side  of  their  nature  as  well  as  the 
receptive.  Its  aim  is  to  equip  a  boy  so  that  when  he 
gets  into  the  world  he  will  be  able  to  do  as  well  as 
to  think.  ...  It  seeks  to  train  the  hand  and  the  eye, 
not  for  the  purpose  of  superseding  the  action  of  the 
mind,  but  as  the  efficient  agents  of  the  mind  in  gaining 
a  truer  and  ampler  knowledge  of  the  world."  In 
training  the  motor  activities  the  brain  is  stimulated 
and  the  powers  of  the  body  are  brought  to  obey  the 
mandates  of  the  will.  It  therefore  belongs  to  the 
curriculum  of  the  common  school,  which  seeks  to  de- 
velop the  whole  child,  as  truly  as  arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, history,  or  reading  belong  to  it.  Parents 
do  not  always  understand  this  educational  purpose. 
"Please  excuse  my  son  from  the  manual  training 
class,"  wrote  an  intelligent  father  to  a  school  principal. 
"I  do  not  expect  him  to  be  a  mechanic  and  therefore 
prefer  that  he  take  something  useful."  It  must  be 
insisted  that  manual  training  is  not  for  the  purpose 
of  making  carpenters,  masons,  blacksmiths,  or  prepar- 


THE    IMPORTANCE    OF   MANUAL   TRAINING  235 

ing  for  any  specific  vocation  or  trade.  It  is  designed 
for  the  student  of  the  humanities  as  well  as  for  the 
student  who  may  devote  himself  to  the  field  of  force 
and  matter.  Graduates  of  manual  training  high 
schools  who  enter  the  university  prove  this  very  con- 
clusively by  the  way  they  sustain  themselves,  even 
in  the  classical  studies.  They  generally  hold  their 
own  with  the  best  in  their  classes,  showing  that  the 
claim  that  "hand  instruction,  no  matter  of  what  kind, 
if  adapted  to  the  age  of  the  pupil  and  properly  con- 
ducted, can  be  made  disciplinary  and  a  valuable 
adjunct  to  primary  literary  studies;  and  that  a  proper 
amount  of  hand  study  can  be  introduced  into  our 
public  schools  without  impairing  the  educational  value 
of  the  studies  now  taught "  is  well  founded.  A  mo- 
ment ;s  reflection  will  show  that  the  lessons  taught  by 
manual  training  are  really  of  more  practical  utility  to 
most  people  than  those  of  any  other  subject  of  the 
common  school  curriculum,  with  the  single  exception 
of  reading.  Knowledge  of  materials,  dexterity  in  the 
use  of  tools,  and  familiarity  with  the  processes  of 
construction  are  called  into  requisition  in  the  manifold 
duties  of  everyday  life  and  therefore  are  of  the  greatest 
practical  account. 

Industrial  vs.  Manual  Training.  —  Another  source 
of  confusion  is  found  in  the  failure  to  distinguish 
between  manual  and  industrial  training.  I  have 
shown  that  manual  training  involves  the  develop- 
ment of  the  motor  activities,  the  acquirement  of  skill 
and  dexterity  in  the  use  of  tools,  the  mastery  of 
processes  of  construction,  and  a  knowledge  of  materials, 
and  that  it  is  purely  educational.  Industrial  training, 


236  TEACHING:     ITS    AIMS   AND    METHODS 

on  the  other  hand,  seeks  to  prepare  the  youth  to  earn 
his  living  by  means  of  the  manual  and  industrial 
arts.  Manual  training  is  necessary  for  a  general 
preparation  for  life,  giving  a  mastery  over  environ- 
ment, and  it  is  as  valuable  to  the  man  who  may 
choose  a  sedentary  career  as  to  the  man  who  may 
enter  the  shop  or  the  factory.  Industrial  training 
definitely  lays  the  foundation  for  a  career  in  the  fields 
of  commerce,  engineering,  manufacturing,  and  other 
industrial  enterprises.  While  it  lays  the  foundation 
for  these  occupations,  it  does  not  specifically  teach  a 
trade.  It  shows  the  underlying  principles  of  industry, 
gives  a  certain  amount  of  skill  in  their  application,  and 
thus  prepares  the  student,  not  only  to  choose  his 
vocation  with  intelligence,  but  also  to  enter  upon  it 
with  increased  probability  of  success.  Manual  training 
is  designed  for  every  child  purely  as  an  educational 
means:  industrial  training  is  designed  for  those  who 
intend  to  enter  those  vocations  involving  the  utiliza- 
tion of  force  and  matter,  the  industries.  Of  course 
industrial  training  is  also  educational,  but  its  specific 
purpose  is  limited  to  one  field  rather  than  to  broad, 
general  culture. 

Now  the  trade  school  also  has  its  field,  and  this, 
certainly,  is  neither  that  of  manual  nor  that  of  indus- 
trial training.  It  aims  to  prepare  for  some  definite 
trade,  as  carpentry,  bricklaying,  molding,  plumbing, 
dressmaking,  etc.,  particularly  some  occupation  em- 
ploying the  hands. 

To  distinguish  clearly  among  these  three  kinds  of 
schools  we  would  say  in  a  word: 

i.   Manual  training  utilizes,  guides,  and  emphasizes 


THE   IMPORTANCE   OF   MANUAL   TRAINING  237 

the  dynamic  forces  of  the  child  and  gives  him  a  knowl- 
edge of  his  material  environment. 

2.  The  industrial  school  teaches  the  pupil  the  foun- 
dations of  technical  industry  and  trains  him  to  apply 
them. 

3.  The    trade    school    prepares    for    some    particular 
mechanical  trade.     Professor  Woodward  says,  "So  long 
as  the  student  gives  his  mind  to  an  exercise  or  process, 
it   is    educational.     His    muscles    respond    to   his   will, 
and    the    nerve-centers    of    his    brain    are    active    with 
excitement."     And  Dr.  Balliet  adds,  "But  after  these 
muscular   movements   become   automatic   by  practice, 
the  brain  relegates  them  almost  wholly  to  the  spinal 
cord.     Such    movements    cease    to    be    of    educational 
value  when  they  are  no  longer  directed  consciously  by 
the  brain.     Any  process  in  manual  training  ought  to 
stop  when  it  ceases  to  be  brain  work.     Here  we  have 
the    difference    between    the    manual    training    school 
and    the    trade    school.     The    manual    training    school 
stops    when     the    point    mentioned    is    reached.     Its 
purpose  is  purely  educational.     The  trade  school  con- 
tinues the  training  in  skill  even  after  the  process  is 
relegated  to  the  spinal  cord,  in  order  that  the  person 
may  develop  the  power  of  producing  in  a  given  length 
of  time  for  the  market  as  large  a  quantity  as  possible 
of  goods    of    a  high  grade    of   finish.     Its    purpose    is 
economic."     "The  object  of  manual  training,"  further 
remarks  Professor  Woodward,   "is  mastery,  —  mastery 
of    the  external  world,   mastery    of  tools,   mastery  of 
materials,  mastery  of  processes."     Technical   drawing, 
designing,     architecture,     commercial    activities,    engi- 
neering, and  mechanics  belong  to  the  field  of  industrial 


238  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

training.  Carpentry,  plumbing,  dressmaking,  and 
tailoring  belong  to  the  trade  school. 

I  have  discussed  these  three  schools  at  length  be- 
cause there  is  so  much  mistiness  in  regard  to  them, 
and  because  it  is  of  greatest  importance  that  the  teacher 
should  have  clearly  set  before  him  just  the  problem 
he  is  to  meet.  We  may  now  devote  our  attention  to 
the  single  question  of  manual  training. 

The  Aim  of  Manual  Training.  —  In  a  report  of 
a  commission  on  Industrial  and  Technical  Education 
to  the  Massachusetts  legislature,  the  following  sugges- 
tions are  made:  " There  is  no  doubt  that  manual 
training  develops  the  intellect,  fosters  morals,  quickens 
the  perceptions,  and  stimulates  and  makes  accurate  the 
powers  of  observation.  Often  school  subjects  do  the 
same,  each  in  its  own  way,  and  all  in  a  general  way. 
A  general  statement  of  this  character  therefore  does 
not  suffice  in  discussing  the  purpose  of  manual  training. 
First  of  all  its  aim  is  the  training  of  the  hand  to  obey 
the  will.  It  calls  for  dynamic,  for  active,  employment 
in  contradistinction  to  the  static  or  passive  scheme  of 
education. 

"  Second,  it  trains  the  eye  to  see  accurately  and 
furnishes  knowledge  of  materials.  In  the  selection 
and  manipulation  of  materials  employed  in  his  work 
the  pupil  gains  a  knowledge  of  them,  the  eye  becomes 
accustomed  to  examine  joints,  angles,  and  curves  in 
the  pieces  constructed;  the  sense  of  proportion  and 
beauty,  as  well  as  fitness,  is  cultivated;  and  a  mastery 
of  details  of  objects  about  him  is  gained.  Such 
acquirements  are  of  inestimable  value,  not  only  from 
an  educational  standpoint,  but  also  for  their  practical 


THE   IMPORTANCE    OF   MANUAL   TRAINING  239 

utility.  They  furnish  an  excellent  equipment  for 
knowing  the  intrinsic  value  of  articles  for  use  either 
in  the  home  or  in  business  relations. 

"  Third,  such  training  is  also  essential  to  a  complete 
development  of  the  brain. " 

Other  eminent  authorities  substantiate  the  same  view. 
Dr.  Eliot  asserts,  "  Manual  training  not  only  trains  the 
eye  and  hand,  but  develops  the  habit  of  accuracy  and 
thoroughness  in  every  kind  of  work.  It  develops  the 
mental  faculties  of  some  boys  better  than  books  do"; 
and  Dr.  Hall  adds,  "No  kind  of  education  so  demon- 
strably  develops  the  brain  as  hand  training."  In 
considering  the  mental  value  of  manual  training, 
Professor  Woodward  says,  "it  runs  into  every  exer- 
cise the  student  has  in  mathematics,  in  language,  in 
literature,  in  science,  in  ethics,  and  in  art." 

The  Place  of  Manual  Training.  —  Some  writers,  like 
Dewey,  James,  Hall,  Wundt,  and  Baldwin,  teach  that 
"the  child's  thought  is  never  dissociated  from  his 
muscles;  that  every  idea  has  a  motor  aspect;  that 
mind  is  in  one  sense  a  middle  term  between  the  senses 
and  the  muscles;  that  an  idea  is  not  complete  until 
it  is  realized  in  action."  If  this  be  true,  manual 
training  should  be  introduced  very  early  into  the  school 
course.  It  is  well  known  that  the  young  child  loves 
to  make  things,  and  if  he  is  furnished  with  tools  and 
materials  he  will  gladly  spend  a  large  part  of  his  time 
in  constructing  various  objects.  With  blocks  he  will 
build,  with  paper  and  scissors  he  will  cut  out  many 
forms,  with  tools  and  boards  he  will  make  boxes  or 
houses,  and  with  sand  he  will  mold.  Of  course  his 
product  will  be  crude,  but  he  is  doing  something  him- 


240  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

self,  he  is  learning  to  use  tools,  he  is  getting  acquainted 
with  materials,  he  is  satisfying  a  natural  instinct. 
Little  attention  should  be  given  to  technique  at  the 
outset.  Indeed,  technique  is  "best  acquired  in  con- 
nection with  a  mastery  of  the  content  which  is  to  be 
expressed  by  means  of  it,"  as  modern  teachers  of 
music,  drawing,  and  penmanship  have  discovered. 
For  example,  the  child  is  allowed  to  express  thought  in 
writing  while  his  penmanship  is  still  crude;  the  pupil 
in  music  is  not  held  to  practice  of  the  scales  without 
securing  some  relief  in  playing  music  that  appeals  to 
him;  the  drawing  teacher,  while  not  unmindful  of 
technical  work,  introduces  objects  of  interest  to  draw. 
It  is  the  customary  practice  to  introduce  manual 
training  in  the  late  grammar  and  high  school  grades. 
If  it  be  true  that  "an  idea  is  not  complete  until  it  is 
realized  in  action,"  that  the  dynamic  is  the  strong 
feature  of  the  young  child's  education,  does  it  not 
follow  that  some  form  of  manual  training  should  be 
introduced  into  the  primary  grades?  Who  has  not 
noticed  that  children,  even  in  their  early  school  years, 
are  eager  to  construct,  to  handle  tools  ?  Give  a  boy 
a  box  of  tools  when  he  is  ten  years  old  and  he  will 
find  employment  for  many  hours.  He  will  make  his 
playthings,  he  will  construct  houses  and  boats  and 
other  things  that  interest  him.  The  chances  are,  unless 
he  has  a  strong  mechanical  tendency,  that  by  the 
time  he  is  fifteen  or  sixteen  years  old  his  interest  in 
tools  will  have  disappeared.  Therefore  it  seems  to  me 
that  Professor  O'Shea  is  right  when  he  says,  "With  the 
progress  of  the  child  through  the  schools,  manual 
training  as  a  form  of  motor  activity  should  occupy  a 


THE   IMPORTANCE    OF   MANUAL   TRAINING  241 

less  and  less  important  place,  except  for  those  pupils 
whose  wills  in  maturity  are  to  be  manifested  primarily 
in  energizing  and  coordinating  muscular  action." 
And  further  he  adds,  "This  does  not  mean,  however, 
that  manual  training  should  be  entirely  abandoned; 
it  means  simply  that  in  the  higher  departments  of 
education  it  is  to  receive  less  and  less  emphasis,  except 
for  those  whose  work  involves  continued  use  of  hand 
rather  than  of  head  primarily/' 

A  neighbor  just  back  of  me  has  three  boys  whose 
activities  it  is  very  interesting  to  watch.  For  years 
there  were  few  waking  hours  when  they  were  out  of 
school  that  one  could  not  hear  the  sound  of  hammer, 
saw,  or  other  tool  in  the  hands  of  these  young  fellows. 
Now  they  are  well  along  in  their  teens  and  one  rarely 
hears  the  noise  of  tools,  —  their  activities  are  turned 
in  other  directions.  I  think  that  almost  every  man,  if 
he  will  reflect  as  to  his  own  boyhood  experience,  will 
recall  that  he  had  a  strong  instinct  for  making  things 
in  his  early  youth  which  diminished  and  possibly  dis- 
appeared in  his  later  boyhood. 

Another  reason  for  emphasizing  manual  training  in 
these  earlier  years  is  that  it  is  preeminently  the  period 
of  character-formation.  The  child's  character  should 
be  pretty  well  established  by  the  time  he  reaches  the 
high  school.  Professor  James  wisely  remarks  concerning 
laboratory  and  shop  work,  "They  engender  a  habit 
of  observation,  a  knowledge  of  the  difference  between 
accuracy  and  vagueness.  .  .  .  They  confer  precision; 
because  if  you  are  doing  a  thing  you  must  do  it  defi- 
nitely right  or  definitely  wrong.  They  give  honesty; 
for  when  you  express  yourself  by  making  things,  and 


242  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

not  by  using  words,  it  becomes  impossible  to  dissimu- 
late your  vagueness  or  ignorance  by  ambiguity.  They 
beget  a  habit  of  self-reliance;  they  keep  the  interest 
and  attention  always  cheerfully  engaged,  and  reduce 
the  teacher's  disciplinary  function  to  a  minimum." 
These  things  surely  are  the  fundamentals  of  character, 
and  anything  that  fosters  them  should  have  a  large 
place  at  this  particular  period  of  the  child's  life.  The 
truth  is  that  the  judgment  of  the  philosopher  and  the 
psychologist  is  amply  sustained  in  every  school  in  which 
manual  training  has  been  introduced;  incorrigible  chil- 
dren become  tractable  and  obedient,  and  many  are 
reformed  and  saved  by  this  means.  But  they  should 
be  given  this  form  of  instruction  in  the  early  adoles- 
cent years  or  previous  to  them  before  they  can  become 
confirmed  in  evil  ways. 

Methods  and  Topics  in  Manual  Training.  -  -  The 
method  of  manual  training,  from  the  very  nature  of 
the  subject,  suggests  itself.  The  child  must  do  the 
things  himself;  there  is  no  other  way  and  no  one  would 
think  of  teaching  this  subject  in  any  other  way.  I 
shall  therefore  suggest  the  things  to  be  attempted, 
without  outlining  any  systematic  course  of  study. 
That  must  be  determined  by  the  facilities  available, 
by  the  teachers  at  command,  and  by  the  peculiar 
demands  of  each  locality.  There  are  certain  funda- 
mental activities,  however,  that  should  be  introduced 
in  every  school  system.  Some  argue  under  the  Cul- 
ture Epoch  Theory  that  the  child  must  be  taken 
through  all  the  steps  the  human  race  has  passed 
through  in  its  evolutionary  development.  We  cer- 
tainly agree  with  Professor  Woodward  when  he  says, 


THE    IMPORTANCE    OF   MANUAL   TRAINING  243 

"  Manual  training  which  is  approached  from  the 
culture  epoch  or  evolutionary  standpoint  is  unpeda- 
gogical,  because  it  attempts  that  which  is  psychologi- 
cally impossible.  It  is  not  in  accordance  with  the 
child's  way  of  approach.  It  does  not  minister  to 
the  child's  most  common  and  imperative  needs."  A 
child  likes  to  do  what  his  playmates  do.  Imagine  a 
father  attempting  to  show  his  boy  the  way  baseball 
was  played  half  a  century  ago.  Again,  it  would  not 
interest  the  boy  in  the  least  that  primitive  men  played 
ball  in  a  much  simpler  way.  How  is  the  game  played 
now?  How  do  his  comrades  play?  How  is  he  to  get 
the  knowledge  and  skill  that  will  secure  him  a  place 
on  the  team?  These  are  the  questions  that  will  interest 
every  boy,  and  it  is  utter  foolishness  to  put  him  through 
obsolete  practices. 

The  child  employs  " short  cuts"  in  his  development 
whenever  he  can,  just  as  a  man  does  in  his  under- 
takings. The  age  of  the  spinning-wheel  and  the 
hand-loom  is  gone  forever.  Machinery  has  revolu- 
tionized the  trades  and  occupations  of  men  and  intro- 
duced new  ideas  and  relations.  The  best  thing  the 
school  can  do  is  to  fit  the  child  into  his  present  environ- 
ment, and  to  do  this  there  is  plenty  of  suitable  and 
interesting  material. 

This  does  not  mean  that  mat-weaving,  basketry,  and 
other  primitive  arts  may  not  be  employed  in  the  in- 
struction of  young  children.  They  love  to  do  this 
work,  and  for  a  time  it  has  an  educational  value.  The 
protest  is  against  a  systematic  course  in  manual  train- 
ing which  seeks  to  carry  the  child  through  the  slow 
processes  of  industrial  development  that  the  world 


244  TEACHING:     ITS   AIMS   AND   METHODS 

has  gone  through  in  the  ages  of  the  past.  The  child 
inevitably  tires  of  it,  as  experience  has  proven,  because 
it  is  unnatural,  unpsychological,  and  has  no  practical 
value. 

It  is  urged  that  not  only  does  the  school  "  prepare 
for  life/'  but  that  "the  school  is  life."  Life  is  real, 
not  imaginary,  and  there  is  an  abundance  of  live 
material  to  offer  the  pupils  which  will  meet  their 
educational  needs.  Manual  training  from  its  very 
nature,  from  the  activities  it  stimulates,  from  the 
practical,  everyday  things  it  deals  with,  furnishes  the 
means  for  meeting  this  utilitarian  demand.  With 
these  general  suggestions  as  an  introduction,  we  may 
outline  the  work  in  manual  training  that  should  be 
given  in  the  elementary  school.  I  may  repeat  that 
no  attempt  is  made  to  present  a  systematic  course 
of  study,  but  rather  to  indicate  the  subjects  to  be 
taught,  inasmuch  as  the  arrangement  of  courses  must 
depend  upon  the  facilities  and  needs  of  each  school. 

i.  Basketry,  clay-modeling,  etc.  —  Paper-cutting,  weav- 
ing, basketry,  and  clay-modeling  are  suited  to  the 
needs  of  young  children  and  are  begun  in  the  kin- 
dergarten and  primary  grades.  They  represent  the 
cruder  forms  of  manual  training,  do  not  call  for  the 
finished  product,  and  therefore  are  suited  to  young 
children.  They  furnish  interesting  occupation  and  at 
the  same  time  begin  the  development  of  the  motor- 
activities,  a  development  which  becomes  more  and  more 
systematic  as  the  children  gain  control  of  the  hand. 
So  little  apparatus  is  required  that  this  work  can  be 
introduced  into  any  school,  no  matter  how  limited  the 
facilities.  Clay-modeling  is  always  interesting  to  chil- 


THE   IMPORTANCE   OF   MANUAL   TRAINING  245 

dren  who  love  to  play  with  "dirt."  To  appreciate 
this  natural  instinct,  one  has  only  to  observe  children 
at  the  seashore  who  will  busy  themselves  for  hours 
playing  in  the  sand.  The  authorities  of  German  cities 
always  set  apart  a  portion  of  the  public  parks  for 
children,  in  which  sand  piles  are  furnished,  and  some 
American  cities  have  adopted  the  same  idea.  Clay- 
modeling  is  a  most  useful  exercise  and  is  entirely 
feasible  in  every  primary  school.  I  have  seen  some 
excellent  work  produced  in  rural  schools  with  very 
scanty  equipment.  Various  kinds  of  fruit  and  vege- 
tables, tools  and  other  objects  of  interest  were  modeled, 
thus  developing  both  the  practical  and  the  aesthetic  sense. 

2.  Drawing   and   design.  —  Every    young    child    loves 
to  draw.     There  is  a  sense  in  which  drawing  and  pen- 
manship are  alike,  since  both  fall  within  the  scope  of 
general   educational   purpose.     All   elementary   schools 
teach    this    kind    of    drawing.     But    when    drawing   is 
employed   more   technically,   in   so   far  as  it  seeks   to 
develop  the  visual  perceptions  and  give  the  hand  skill 
in  manipulating,  and  when  it  is  used  in  designing  and 
making    working-drawings    from    which    models    and 
objects  are  constructed,  it  may  clearly  be  considered 
as  belonging  to  the  field  of  manual  training.     Indeed, 
it  is  one  of  the  most  important  adjuncts  of  training  in 
the  shop,  not  only  as  a  means  of  expression,  but  also 
of    originating,    designing,    clearly    marking    out,    and 
making  models  of  the  work   to  be  done.     This,   too, 
can    be   introduced    at   little    expense,   the    one   point 
being  that  it  requires  a  teacher  trained  in  this  special 
field. 

3.  Wood-working    and    metal-working.  —  In    this    con- 


246  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

nection  the  estimates  of  quantities,  value,  and  uses  of 
various  kinds  of  woods  and  metals  are  learned,  the 
ability  properly  to  turn  them  into  more  or  less  finished 
articles  acquired,  the  dexterity  in  the  use  of  tools 
secured,  and  a  considerable  knowledge  of  materials 
obtained.  For,  as  we  have  seen,  manual  training  must 
not  only  give  dexterity  of  hand,  but  also  must  culti- 
vate the  judgment,  must  stimulate  activity  of  the  mind, 
must  furnish  that  knowledge  which  gives  mastery  over 
environment. 

In  the  necessary  employment  of  measurements,  in 
the  selecting,  comparing,  adapting,  and  utilizing  of 
materials,  in  the  cooperation  of  eye,  hand,  and  mind, 
the  judgment  and  reasoning,  as  well  as  the  observing 
powers,  will  receive  the  very  best  training.  There  are 
no  other  subjects  in  the  school  course  so  well  adapted 
to  give  this  important  and  necessary  training.  The 
equipment  in  this  work  is  necessarily  expensive,  and 
in  many  schools  prohibitive,  but  some  of  the  simpler 
forms  can  be  introduced  into  every  school  at  very  small 
expense. 

4.  Working  in  brass  and  copper.  —  The  more  ad- 
vanced pupils  may  be  given  sheet-brass  and  copper 
work  in  which  more  finished  articles  are  made  after 
original  designs.  Etching,  polishing,  buffing,  etc.,  may 
be  introduced  when  pupils  possess  sufficient  strength 
and  maturity  of  body  and  mind,  have  attained  some 
degree  of  facility  in  the  use  of  tools,  and  are  capable 
of  sustained  and  patient  perseverance.  Articles  of 
beauty  and  utility  can  thus  be  made.  Carving  and 
bookbinding  are  sometimes  added  when  a  taste  for 
the  work  is  evident. 


THE   IMPORTANCE    OF   MANUAL   TRAINING  247 

The  limit  of  the  amount  of  manual  training  given 
will  depend  upon  the  time  that  can  be  devoted  to  it, 
the  equipment  available,  the  materials  furnished,  the 
needs  of  each  class  of  pupils,  and  upon  the  occupations 
that  chiefly  employ  the  people  of  the  community. 
For  while  manual  training  is  purely  educational  in  its 
intent,  and  therefore  is  essential  to  the  development  of 
all  children,  there  is  no  reason  why  it  may  not  be  so 
directed  as  to  have  a  great  bearing  upon  the  future 
occupations  of  many  of  the  pupils  in  any  given  com- 
munity, 


CHAPTER   XVII 

TRAINING  IN  THE  HOUSEHOLD  ARTS 

The  Increasing  Duties  of  the  School.  —  In  the  old- 
time  home  the  girl  learned  from  her  mother  the  art 
of  housekeeping.  Unfortunately  the  entire  work  of 
education  of  girls  as  well  as  boys  is  being  forced  upon 
the  school,  and  many  lessons  which  ought  to  be  learned 
in  the  home  and  which  can  better  be  learned  there 
than  elsewhere,  must  now  be  taught  in  the  school  or 
they  never  will  be  learned.  It  is  true  that  woman  is 
called  to  multifarious  outside  activities, — social,  re- 
ligious, commercial,  and  political, —  such  as  were  not 
within  her  sphere  in  former  times  and  which  absorb 
a  large  part  of  her  life.  The  great  changes  in  modern 
civilization  have  given  woman  an  enlarged  place  in 
the  affairs  of  human  life,  have  in  the  best  sense  emanci- 
pated and  given  her  a  place  that  justly  belongs  to  her 
and  which  she  is  admirably  fitted  to  fill.  No  one 
would  check  this  movement,  even  if  it  were  possible, 
for  it  makes  for  a  better  civilization  and  is  an  evidence 
of  progress.  The  highest  test  of  civilization  in  any 
people  is  found  in  their  esteem  for  women. 

But  while  fully  recognizing  woman's  new  sphere, 
and  while  according  to  her  the  right  and  duty  to  par- 
ticipate in  such  activities  as  tend  to  broaden  her  own 
life,  and  in  such  interests  as  utilize  her  capabilities  for 
the  advancement  of  every  good  cause,  one  can  but 


TRAINING   IN   THE   HOUSEHOLD   ARTS  249 

deplore  her  tendency  to  neglect  the  domestic  arts. 
For,  after  all,  the  highest  and  noblest  function  of 
woman  is  as  the  "  Queen  of  the  Home,"  training  her 
boys  and  girls  in  the  practical  duties  of  life,  inspiring 
them  with  noble  ideals,  and  making  the  home  the 
most  beautiful  place  on  earth  to  all  its  inmates. 

A  large  part  of  our  girls  are  growing  up  ignorant  of 
those  domestic  arts  which  are  essential  to  the  happi- 
ness and  well-being  of  the  home.  School  work  ab- 
sorbs the  time  of  girls  so  completely  that  there  is 
little  time  left  for  the  homely  and  necessary  duties 
of  the  household.  The  right  of  the  school  so  to 
monopolize  the  child's  time  and  strength  may  seriously 
be  questioned.  But  it  is  the  office  of  the  school  to 
teach  everything  that  is  necessary  for  practical  life, 
and  to  supply  as  far  as  may  be  the  instruction  that 
other  agencies  of  education  often  neglect.  Hence  the 
school  is  obliged  to  teach  domestic  science.  It  may 
also  be  suggested  that  even  where  attention  is  paid 
in  the  home  to  this  side  of  a  girl's  education,  very 
often  the  mother  is  lacking  in  the  knowledge,  skill,  and 
patience  to  give  suitable  instruction  in  domestic  arts. 
Few  housewives  are  acquainted  with  scientific  methods 
of  cooking,  with  the  nutritive  value  of  foodstuffs,  or 
with  real  household  economy.  Here  is  an  open  field 
therefore  for  the  school. 

There  should  be  courses  showing  the  nature,  nutritive 
value,  suitability,  and  preparation,  of  foods;  courses  in 
the  hygienic  and  sanitary  features  of  the  household 
together  with  some  knowledge  of  how  to  treat  the 
common  diseases;  in  the  choice,  making,  and  care  of 
clothing;  in  the  care  of  children;  and  in  such  other 


250  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

duties  as  arise  in  a  well-regulated  home.  This  field 
offers  suitable  and  interesting  employment  for  girls, 
while  boys  are  given  other  forms  of  manual  training. 
Let  the  school  and  the  home  work  hand  in  hand,  the 
former  teaching  the  scientific  facts  and  the  methods 
which  further  progress,  while  the  latter  supplements 
this  instruction  by  actual  practice,  such  as  is  not 
possible  in  the  limited  time  and  means  at  the  com- 
mand of  the  school. 

What  is  Domestic  Science?  —  Domestic  science  means 
more  than  the  mere  art  of  cooking.  It  has  to  do  with 
all  matters  connected  with  physical  well-being,  such  as 
sanitation  or  cleanliness,  the  nature,  use,  and  nutritive 
value  of  foods,  the  art  of  marketing,  etc.,  as  well  as  with 
cooking.  Home  economy,  however,  is  a  broader  term 
in  that  it  includes  all  sides  of  the  home  and  its  man- 
agement. The  home  is  not  merely  a  place  in  which 
to  eat  and  sleep.  But  it  is  a  place  in  which  gather 
all  the  sacred  and  sympathetic  influences  of  those 
closely  related  by  the  ties  of  blood  and  kinship, —  of 
husband  and  wife,  of  parents  and  children,  of  brothers 
and  sisters.  Here  it  is  that  children  are  born  and 
reared;  where  the  struggles  of  existence  are  shared; 
where  mutual  love  and  forbearance  lighten  the  sorrows 
that  must  come;  where  the  infinite  patience  and  sacri- 
fice of  parents  indelibly  fix  in  the  memory  incidents 
ever  to  be  cherished  and  held  sacred;  where  the  chil- 
dren, if  fortunately  there  be  a  number,  learn  lessons  of 
unselfishness,  of  forgiveness,  of  mutual  confidence,  of 
never-failing  love  for  each  other,  and  of  broader  sym- 
pathy for  all  humanity.  No  matter  where  it  is 
located,  no  matter  whether  it  is  a  cottage  or  a  palace, 


TRAINING   IN   THE   HOUSEHOLD   ARTS  251 

whether  lowly  or  exalted,  it  is  home  and  therefore  it 
is  ever  dear. 

We  may  roam  over  the  world;  we  may  go  to  the 
seashore  or  to  the  mountains;  we  may  sit  at  tables 
loaded  with  luxuries  in  the  finest  hotels;  we  may 
mingle  with  the  gay  multitudes;  but  the  real  luxury, 
the  real  joy,  the  real  comfort,  the  real  happiness,  is 
experienced  when  we  come  back  again  to  our  own 
home.  Unhappy  the  man  or  woman  who  has  no  home 
or  who  fails  to  appreciate  its  full  meaning. 

A  knowledge  of  home  economics  is  far  more  im- 
portant in  making  the  place  where  we  live  a  real 
home  than  many  realize.  Not  only  must  there  be 
mutual  sympathy  among  its  inmates,  but  there  must 
be  a  knowledge  of  those  things  which  make  for  com- 
fort and  health  and  also  a  practical  use  of  that  knowl- 
edge. Many  a  man  goes  to  the  bright  and  cheery 
saloon,  not  because  he  craves  drink,  but  because  his 
home  is  wanting  in  the  elements  above  pictured. 
Many  a  boy  or  girl  goes  upon  the  street  or  to  ques- 
tionable resorts  at  night  because  the  place  where  they 
live  is  not  home.  A  mother  of  nine  children,  four 
boys  and  five  girls,  used  to  say  in  the  evening  when 
the  boys  began  to  be  uneasy  and  the  street  began 
to  lure  them,  "  Girls,  entertain  your  brothers."  There 
was  no  trouble  to  keep  them  in,  because  the  amuse- 
ments that  interested  young  people  were  allowed  and 
there  was  real  home  Jife.  There  are  influences  that 
touch  the  spirit,  which  of  course  are  primarily  essen- 
tial, but  those  that  touch  the  physical  also  must  not  be 
ignored. 

Our  grandmothers  carded  the  wool  or  the  flax,  spun 


252  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

it  into  yarn,  wove  it  into  cloth,  and  finally  made  it 
into  garments  for  the  family.  The  wonderful  devel- 
opment of  machinery  has  changed  all  this.  The 
raw  material  is  sold  and  the  finished  product  is  pur- 
chased ready  for  use.  So,  too,  the  housewife  is  no 
longer  required  to  care  for  the  milk,  to  churn  it  and 
make  it  into  butter,  but  the  milk  is  sold  to  the  cream- 
ery and  thus  the  heavy  labor  is  escaped.  This  by  no 
means  indicates  that  she  can  escape  the  responsibilities 
of  the  home.  New  duties  are  thrust  upon  her  by  the 
complicated  requirements  of  modern  civilization.  She 
must  know  how  to  manage  servants,  to  rear  and  care 
for  her  children,  to  direct  the  economies  of  the  house- 
hold —  in  a  word,  she  must  be  a  helpmate  to  her 
husband,  thus  contributing  as  much  as  he  does,  if 
not  more,  to  the  prosperity  of  the  family  through  her 
administration  of  the  internal  affairs  of  the  home. 

If  the  school  can  aid  in  a  preparation  for  such 
efficiency  it  certainly  will  do  an  important  service. 
It  must  teach  the  girls  who  will  have  charge  of  the 
homes  of  toitiorrow  those  things  which  will  make  the 
management  of  those  homes  not  only  an  intelligible 
but  an  interesting  task.  If  we  can  implant  in  the 
schoolgirls  of  today  the  knowledge  of  how  to  care  for 
the  home  and  the  love  of  the  work  necessary  to  make 
that  home  a  success,  we  shall  have  solved  a  great 
problem. 

And  women  are  learning  this  lesson.  In  a  little 
work  on  "Home  Economics 'n  we  read:  "It  is  not, 
perhaps,  too  much  to  say  that  much  of  woman's  early 
work  in  chemistry  was  a  more  or  less  indefinite  playing 

1  Bevier  and  Usher. 


TRAINING   IN    THE    HOUSEHOLD    ARTS  253 

with  test-tubes  in  which  one  of  three  results  was  ex- 
pected —  a  beautiful  color,  a  bad  odor,  or  an  explosion. 
She  was  not  long  in  discovering  that  her  brother  took 
chemistry  and  bacteriology,  not  because  someone  had 
told  him  that  it  ought  to  form  a  part  of  a  liberal 
education,  but  because  he  expected  to  use  this  knowl- 
edge later  in  his  work  with  soil  or  in  the  dairy.  Women 
were  thus  helped  to  see  that  there  was  a  field  of  applied 
science  for  women  as  well  as  for  men.  They  realized 
later  that  the  laws  of  heat  could  be  illustrated  by  the 
kitchen-range  quite  as  adequately  as  by  the  steam- 
engine,  that  the  life  history  of  bacteria  could  be  studied 
in  many  household  processes,  and  the  chemistry  of 
food  was  in  many  cases  better  suited  to  their  needs 
than  that  of  stories  under  the  title  'determinative 
miner  alogy." 

Quoting  further  from  this  book,  "When  young  ladies 
are  taught  the  construction  of  their  own  bodies,  and 
all  the  causes  in  domestic  life  which  tend  to  weaken 
the  constitution;  when  they  are  taught  rightly  to 
appreciate  and  learn  the  most  beneficent  and  eco- 
nomical modes  of  performing  all  family  duties,  and  of 
employing  time  and  money;  and  when  they  perceive 
the  time  estimate  accorded  to  those  things  by  teachers 
and  friends,  the  grand  cause  of  this  evil  (that  of  de- 
spising domestic  arts)  will  be  removed.  Women  will 
be  trained  to  secure,  as  of  first  importance,  strong  and 
healthy  constitutions,  and  all  those  rules  of  thrift  and 
economy  that  will  make  domestic  duty  easy  and 
pleasant." 

The  Sixth  Annual  Lake  Placid  Conference. — This  con- 
ference on  home  economics  adopted  Mrs.  Ellen  H. 


254  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

Richards's  ideals,  for  which  home  economics  stands  as 
follows :  — 

1.  "The  ideal  home  life  for  today  unhampered  by 
the  traditions  of  the  past. 

2.  "The  utilization  of  all  the  resources  of  modern 
science  to  improve  the  home  life. 

3.  "The  freedom  of  the  home  from  the  dominance 
of  things  and  their  due  subordination  to  ideals. 

4.  "The  simplicity  in  material  surroundings  which 
will  most  free  the  spirit  for  the  more  important  and 
permanent  interests  of  the  home  and  of  society." 

The  Scope  of  Home  Economy.  —  It  would  be  impossi- 
ble within  the  limits  of  this  book  to  outline  a  course  in 
home  economy.  The  purpose  here  is  rather  to  awaken 
an  interest  in  this  subject  and  show  its  supreme  im- 
portance to  the  well-being,  success,  and  happiness  of 
the  American  people.  If  the  view  taken  is  correct  it 
certainly  is  deserving  of  a  place  in  our  schools.  For 
details  of  the  work  the  reader  must  obtain  a  text-book 
on  the  subject. 

We  may,  however,  briefly  discuss  some  of  the  most 
important  features  to  be  considered :  — 

i .  Foods.  —  Many  foods  can  now  be  purchased  in 
a  condition  wholly  or  partially  prepared  for  the  table. 
We  have  breakfast  foods,  canned  meats,  soups,  fruits, 
and  vegetables  in  a  great  variety  of  forms  which 
require  little  preparation  for  use.  And  yet,  one  could 
not  live  on  these  productions;  there  must  be  a  knowl- 
edge of  cooking,  for  most  of  the  foods  necessary  to 
an  appetizing,  economical,  and  healthful  diet  are 
unprepared.  "Scientific  cooking  depends  upon  an 
intelligent  understanding  of  the  chemistry  of  foods,  and 


TRAINING   IN   THE   HOUSEHOLD   ARTS  255 

of  the  chemical  and  physical  laws  underlying  the 
cooking  processes."  We  all  know  of  the  famous 
cooking  of  some  dishes  by  the  colored  " mammies" 
of  the  South,  and  most  men  recall  with  tender  memo- 
ries the  pies,  shortcakes,  pancakes,  and  stews  that 
their  mothers  made,  forgetting  that  they  no  longer 
possess  a  boy's  appetite.  But  the  ability  to  make  these 
delicious  dishes  was  acquired  only  by  long  and  costly 
experience,  and  if  there  was  failure,  the  cook  did  not 
know  the  reason  for  it. 

Miss  Cochran  says,  "To  cook  intelligently  we  must 
know  the  reason  for  each  step.  Why  do  egg  and  milk 
curdle  if  cooked  at  too  high  a  temperature?  Why  is 
nine-tenths  of  the  cream  of  tomato  soup  which  is 
served,  curdled?  Why  do  many  serve  a  pasty  mass 
of  rice  instead  of  an  attractive  dish  of  fluffy  grains? 
Why,  if  we  wish  pastry  to  be  light  and  flaky,  do  we  have 
the  ingredients  cold  and  then  put  the  paste  into  a 
very  hot  oven? 

"For  the  answer  to  these  and  hundreds  of  other 
questions  we  turn  to  chemistry  or  physics.  A  knowl- 
edge of  the  composition  of  eggs  and  milk,  and  the 
properties  of  albumen,  of  the  action  of  acids  on  the 
casein  of  milk,  of  the  processes  involved  in  the  manipu- 
lation of  rice,  of  the  expansion  of  gases  when  subjected 
to  heat,  will  prevent  the  common  errors  in  cooking  any 
of  the  dishes  mentioned." 

An  understanding  of  the  nutritive  value  of  foods  will 
not  only  aid  wonderfully  in  solving  the  problem  of 
the  high  cost  of  living,  but  will  also  do  much  towards 
the  production  of  a  more  vigorous  race.  It  is  not 
always  the  highest-priced  cuts  of  meats  that  are  most 


256  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

nutritious,  and  skill  in  utilizing  every  part  so  that 
there  shall  be  no  waste  is  one  of  the  most  important 
things  be  be  learned. 

2.  Marketing.  —  Much   of    the  economy  and  success 
of  household  management  depends  upon  the  knowledge 
of  how  to  market.     Many  a  housewife  turns  this  im- 
portant duty  over  to   the  cook  or  does  her  ordering 
through  the  telephone.     It  is  far  better  to  go  to  the 
market  and  make  the  selections  needed,  thus  learning 
the  prices  and  being  sure  of  the  quality  of  the  pur- 
chases.    Not  only  will  money  be  saved,  but  a  better 
grade  of  goods  will  be  secured.     There  are  few  dealers 
that    will    not   give    better    service    if    they    meet    the 
mistress  face  to  face.     She  should  study  the  grades  of 
goods  and  learn  to  select  what  will  just  suit  her  pur- 
pose.    Lessons  upon  choosing  the  cuts  of  meat,  upon 
the  characteristics  of  vegetables  and  fruits,  upon  the 
manner  of  determining  whether  a  fowl  is   tender,   or 
a  fish  wholesome,   can  easily  be  given  in   the  school. 
Skilful  marketing,  which  aids  so  materially  in  solving 
the  problem  of  the  high  cost  of  living,  is  an  art  worthy 
of  more  attention  than  is  usually  given  to  it. 

3.  Cooking.  —  The    French  are  celebrated  for  utiliz- 
ing every  particle  of  food,  and  by  their  skill  in  cooking; 
savory   and    wholesome   dishes    are   prepared    at   little 
cost.     "We  never  allow  any  part  of  a  roast  to  come 
on  the  table  a  second  time,"  boastfully  asserted  a  house- 
wife, and   thus  perfectly  good   and  wholesome  food  is 
thrown    into    the    garbage.     What    utter    foolishness! 
for  not  only  are  excellent  cold  cuts  usually  left,  but  the 
bones  and  other  remnants  can  be  made  into  delicious 
soup.     American  girls  need  to  be  taught  the  folly  and 


TRAINING   IN   THE   HOUSEHOLD   ARTS  257 

waste  of  throwing  away  whatever  is  clean  and  whole- 
some and  can  be  made  into  some  other  dish.  Im- 
proper preparation  of  the  food  brought  into  the  house, 
lack  of  knowledge  as  to  how  to  make  the  most  of 
material,  and  wastefulness  from  the  table,  are  making 
the  cost  of  living  high  and  keeping  many  people  poor. 

4.  Harmony  of  foods.  —  There  must  not  only  be  skill 
in  preparing  food,  but  there  must  also  be  knowl- 
edge of  the  suitability  and  harmony  of  foods.  Here  is 
seen  the  necessity  of  being  acquainted  with  the  chem- 
istry of  foods.  A  course  in  home  economics  must  in- 
clude a  treatment  of  this  subject.  An  improper  mixing 
of  foods  that  separately  are  wholesome  is  liable  to 
cause  indigestion  and  distress  and  thus  utterly  fail, 
and  worse  than  fail,  to  perform  the  function  of  food, 
namely,  to  nourish  and  build  up  the  body.  It  is  not 
enough  that  food  shall  be  appetizing.  Lobster  salad 
corned  beef  and  cabbage,  and  ice  cream  are  all  appe- 
tizing, but  mix  these  three  in  one  sitting  at  the 
table,  —  and  I  have  seen  worse  combinations,  —  and  it 
will  be  a  miracle  if  trouble  does  not  follow. 

The  serving  of  one  type  of  foodstuff,  however,  to  the 
exclusion  of  others,  is  even  more  dangerous  than  the 
improper  mixing  of  food  because  it  is  more  common. 
For  instance,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  rice  and 
potatoes  served  at  the  same  meal.  If  meat  or  other 
protein  food  is  served  at  the  same  time  no  harm  may 
result;  but  if,  as  is  often  the  case  among  the  poor, 
there  is  an  insufficiency  of  food  containing  protein  and 
mineral  matter,  then  all  the  family  suffers  more  or 
less  and  the  children  are  often  dwarfed  and  deficient 
both  physically  and  mentally.  The  only  way  to  over- 


258  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

come  these  evils  is  to  teach  the  needs  of  the  body, 
the  composition  of  the  various  foods,  and  the  manner 
in  which  the  body  utilizes,  or  rather  prepares  for  utili- 
zation, the  food  which  is  eaten. 

It  is  as  much  the  duty  of  the  housewife  to  offer  a 
suitable  and  harmonious  selection  of  foods  as  it  is 
to  prepare  them  well.  Attention  to  this  feature  of 
household  duty  will  preserve  health,  add  immensely 
to  the  sum  of  human  happiness,  and  lengthen  life. 

5.  Sanitation.  —  The  importance  of  sanitation  in  the 
home   is  recognized    in    modern  life,   and   as   a  conse- 
quence the  home  has  been  made  far  more  comfortable 
and  the  period  of  longevity  extended.     Cleanliness,  the 
care  of  garbage,  attention  to  the  plumbing  and  sewer- 
age, wholesome  water,  good  air,  the  house-fly  nuisance, 
and  other  matters  connected  with   the  household    are 
of  the  greatest  importance  in  conserving  health.     Many 
parents  are  either  ignorant  of  these  things  or  indifferent 
to  them.     It  therefore  behooves  the  school  to  furnish 
such  instruction  as  will  give  an  intelligent  conception 
of    the    dangers    with    which    unsanitary    conditions 
menace   the  home   and    to    suggest   practical   remedies 
for  them. 

6.  Disease.  —  Closely  connected  with   sanitation   are 
the  symptoms,  nature,  and  treatment  of  the  common- 
est diseases   of   childhood.     It  is  not   to   be   expected 
that   the   school   shall   teach   how   to   treat   dangerous 
diseases.     But  there  are  many  simple  illnesses  of  chil- 
dren that  can  be  attended  to  in  the  home,  and  the  dan- 
gerous   symptoms    of    these    should    be    understood. 
Every  family  cannot  afford  to  call  a  doctor  whenever 
one  of  the  members  is  out  of  sorts,  nor  indeed  is  this 


TRAINING   IN   THE   HOUSEHOLD   ARTS  259 

necessary.  First-aid  remedies  should  be  understood, 
and  when  the  case  does  not  readily  yield  to  these,  a 
doctor  should  be  consulted.  An  especial  caution  is 
necessary,  namely,  that  the  call  of  the  physician  shall 
not  be  too  long  delayed.  I  am  only  urging  that  there 
shall  be  a  knowledge  of  the  simplest  diseases  and  of 
the  signs  of  danger.  In  a  word,  a  knowledge  of  what 
might  be  called  home  nursing.  Especial  attention 
should  be  given  to  training  in  how  to  carry  out  the 
doctor's  orders.  Everyone  should  know  how  to  take 
the  pulse  rate,  to  estimate  fairly  accurately  the  tempera- 
ture, and  to  determine  the  presence  of  the  fever  which 
may  accompany  scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  measles,  and 
other  serious  diseases.  Instruction  in  these  things  is 
wholly  practicable  in  all  the  schools,  and  is  of  the 
highest  importance. 

7.  Clothing.  —  The  selection  of  suitable  and  durable 
clothing  for  the  family  is  very  essential  in  the  practice 
of  home  economy.  There  is  an  infinite  amount  of 
waste  occasioned  by  ignorance  in  regard  to  the  value 
of  the  stuffs  used  in  clothing.  Often  a  garment  is 
bought  because  it  is  cheap  in  price,  when,  perhaps,  in 
the  end,  it  is  the  most  expensive.  Children  need 
clothing  suited  to  the  season,  well-made,  plain,  and 
strong.  Such  clothing  should  not  be  of  a  character 
to  stimulate  their  vanity.  At  the  same  time  it  can  be 
attractive  as  well  as  serviceable.  Then,  too,  children, 
boys  as  well  as  girls  should  be  taught  to  take  care  of 
their  clothing,  to  put  it  away  in  place  and  in  order 
upon  removing  it  and  to  keep  it  clean.  Mending, 
darning,  cleaning,  and  renovating  should  be  taught 
to  girls  as  soon  as  they  are  old  enough.  The  training 


260  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

of  German  girls  in  this  respect  might  well  be  adopted 
in  the  American  home.  It  would  add  materially  to 
the  comfort  and  economy  of  living. 

8.  The   servant    question.  —  No    solution    of    the    em- 
barrassing question  of  servants  can  be  offered  in  the 
space  here  at  command.     How  to  secure  servants,  how 
to  obtain  efficient  service  from  them,  and  how  to  keep 
them  are  problems  that  are   harassing  many  a  house- 
wife.    It  may  be   said,   however,   that  most   servants 
have   respect  for  a  mistress  who   quietly,   yet  firmly, 
assumes  her  place  as  the  head  of  the  internal  affairs 
of  the  household,  that  is,  provided  she  knows  how  to 
conduct  these  affairs.     Kindly  treatment  of  the  servants 
of  course  is  most  essential.     The  work  of  the  house- 
hold should  be  so  systematized  that  it  may  be  carried 
out  without  friction,  each  day  having  its  specific  tasks 
and   its   time   for   rest.     These   simple   suggestions,    if 
faithfully  carried  out,  will  do  much  to  make  the  rela- 
tionship between  mistress  and    maid    happy  and  suc- 
cessful.    Courses  in  household  economy  should  not  fail 
to  include  lessons  in  this  important  field. 

9.  Care  of  children.  —  A  great  deal  has  been  learned 
in  recent  years  in  regard  to  the  care  of  children.     We 
have  seen  that  not  long  ago  forty  per  cent  of  all  the 
deaths    in    this    country    was    of    children    under    five 
years  of  age,  and  that  this  is  reduced  now  to  less  than 
twenty  per  cent.     Successful  treatment  of   diphtheria, 
scarlet  fever,  measles  and  other  children's  diseases  is 
largely   the   cause   of   this   wonderful   result.     But   the 
practice   of   hygienic   measures,    the    careful   study   of 
foods,  especially  that  of  milk  and  its  use,  cleanliness, 
proper  clothing,  and    the   use    of   preventives   in    the 


TRAINING   IN   THE   HOUSEHOLD   ARTS  261 

treatment  of  the  common  diseases,  are  also  of  great 
importance.  Is  there  any  reason  why  many  lessons 
upon  these  matters  should  not  be  taught  in  the  schools? 
The  school  undertakes  to  prepare  for  life,  —  healthful, 
happy  life.  What  instruction,  then,  more  important 
than  this  can  be  given? 

Home  economics  thus  should  find  a  place  in  the  cur- 
riculum of  our  schools.  Girls  should  be  offered  an 
opportunity  to  learn  the  duties  which  will  later  confront 
many  of  them  as  wives  and  mothers,  and  which  it  is 
well  that  every  woman  should  understand  whether 
she  is  to  become  the  head  of  a  household  or  not. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

INSTRUCTION  IN  AGRICULTURE 

The  Need  for  Instruction  in  Agriculture.  —  A  larger 
number  of  people  in  this  country  gain  their  livelihood 
from  some  form  of  agriculture  than  from  any  other 
pursuit.  And  yet,  until  recently  very  little  attention 
has  been  paid  to  the  scientific  study  of  this  subject. 
The  large  increase  in  the  population  of  the  country, 
the  exhaustion  of  the  immense  public  domain,  the 
competition  of  other  countries  in  agricultural  products, 
and  the  great  increase  in  the  cost  of  living  have  com- 
bined to  compel  us  to  consider  how  we  may  not  only 
conserve  our  resources  but  also  increase  them.  It  is 
obvious  that  the  most  fertile  and  profitable  field  of 
investigation  in  the  solution  of  the  problem  is  the 
securing  of  larger  returns  per  acre,  in  getting  higher 
average  crops.  With  the  natural  fertility  of  our  soil  and 
with  our  excellent  climatic  conditions,  the  returns  from 
our  farms  per  acre  are  ridiculously  small  as  compared 
with  the  returns  from  the  farms  of  other  countries. 

The  migration  from  the  farm  to  the  city  has  been 
so  steady  and  persistent  as  to  alarm  public  economists, 
and  has  led  to  a  serious  study  of  the  problem  of  keep- 
ing the  boy  on  the  farm.  Already  there  are  signs  of 
reaction  and  indications  of  a  return  to  earlier  con- 
ditions. Farm  life  is  made  more  attractive,  the  returns 
are  more  profitable,  and  the  tide  seems  to  be  turning 
in  the  right  direction.  Great  universities  and  agri- 


INSTRUCTION   IN   AGRICULTURE  263 

cultural  schools  are  studying  the  art  of  scientific  farm- 
ing, agricultural  departments  have  been  established 
by  the  national  government  and  the  state  govern- 
ments, scientific  lectures  on  farming  are  everywhere 
being  given,  a  large  amount  of  literature  is  being  dis- 
tributed, and  in  many  sections  the  subject  is  receiving 
attention  in  the  common  schools.  At  last  the  country 
is  aroused  as  to  the  importance  of  the  subject. 

However,  the  discussion  which  follows  is  particularly 
concerned  with  the  children  of  the  district  school. 
There  is  no  reason  why  the  children  of  the  farming 
districts,  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  rural  school,  should 
not  be  interested  in  such  questions  as  the  nature  of 
soils  and  the  adaptation  of  crops  to  various  soils,  the 
selection  and  planting  of  seeds,  the  choice  of  fertilizers, 
the  rotation  of  crops,  the  care  of  live  stock,  the  testing 
of  milk,  and  other  matters  connected  with  successful 
farming.  The  study  of  these  problems  is  far  more 
practical  and  interesting  than  that  of  many  subjects 
now  taught  in  these  schools.  These  things,  moreover, 
tend  to  popularize  the  farm  and  keep  the  young  people 
at  home.  Increased  transportation  facilities  are  re- 
moving the  isolation  of  rural  life  and  attracting  city 
people  to  homes  where  the  children  can  get  near  to 
mother  earth,  where  they  can  have  vegetable  and 
flower  gardens,  and  where  they  can  be  surrounded  by 
natural,  wholesome,  healthful,  and  uplifting  influences. 
Many  rural  schools  have  established  school  gardens, 
where  some  of  the  elemental  features  of  scientific 
farming  are  illustrated,  in  which  the  children  are 
shown  how  plants  grow,  and  are  taught  to  cultivate 
crops  by  actually  doing  the  work  themselves. 


264  TEACHING:     ITS   AIMS  AND   METHODS 

Not  only  are  the  children  interested  and  benefited, 
since  the  work  is  made  to  correlate  with  other  school 
work,  but  parents  also  become  enthusiastic  and  the 
result  often  is  greatly  improved  methods  of  farming 
in  the  whole  community.  This  is  not  mere  theory, 
for  such  has  been  the  result  in  many  cases  where  it 
has  been  tried.  Thus  the  school  becomes  a  beneficent 
influence,  not  alone  for  the  intellectual,  moral,  and 
social  upbuilding  of  the  pupils,  but  also  for  the  ma- 
terial prosperity  of  the  whole  community. 

This  work  is  entirely  practicable,  can  be  carried  on 
at  little  expense,  and  will  yield  results  far  beyond  the 
most  sanguine  expectations.  It  requires,  however,  a 
teacher  of  intelligence  and  enthusiasm.  There  are 
abundant  recent  publications  treating  of  this  subject 
to  guide  the  teacher  in  this  important  and  practical 
field  of  education.  It  is  said  that  the  weak  link  in 
our  public  school  system  is  the  rural  school.  Much 
that  has  been  taught  in  the  rural  school  has  been  copied 
from  the  town  school  curriculum  and  has  been  of  little 
practical  value  to  country  children.  The  introduction 
of  instruction  in  practical  agriculture  should  aid  in 
the  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  rural  school.1 

1  It  is  impossible  to  present  an  outline  of  a  course  in  agriculture  in  a 
book  of  this  character.  I  therefore  refer  the  reader  to  the  following 
works:  — 

Focht  — "The  American  Rural  School/'  Davenport  —  " Education  for 
Efficiency,"  Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill  —  "Agriculture  for  Beginners," 
Hatch  and  Haselwood  —  "Elementary  Agriculture,"  Nolan  —  "One  Hun- 
dred Lessons  in  Agriculture,"  Bulletins  from  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education.  Bulletin,  1913,  No.  42,  entitled  "An  Experimental  Rural 
School  at  Winthrop  College,  Rock  Hill,  S.  C."  gives  excellent  suggestions 
as  to  what  is  possible  in  a  country  school. 


INSTRUCTION   IN   AGRICULTURE  265 

The  Home  Project  Plan  of  Massachusetts.1  —  Massa- 
chusetts has  recently  adopted  a  plan  of  agricultural 
education  that  is  meeting  with  great  success.  The 
plan  is  as  follows:  Any  town  or  group  of  contiguous 
towns  may  establish  an  agricultural  school  and  receive 
state  support.  It  is  provided  that  "An  agricultural 
school,  day  or  evening,  large  or  small,  taught  by 
one  teacher  or  more,  with  or  without  school  land  and 
live  stock,  with  training  extended  over  two,  three  or 
four  years,  a  school  in  general  agriculture,  or  in 
such  specialized  productions  as  market  gardening/ ' 
may  be  established  and  one-half  the  expense  be  borne 
by  the  state,  provided  that  the  State  Board  of 
Education  approves  of  its  "organization,  control, 
location,  equipment,  courses  of  study,  qualifications 
of  teachers,  methods  of  instruction,  conditions  of  ad- 
mission and  employment  of  pupils,  and  expenditure  of 
money." 

It  is  provided  that  in  high  schools  maintaining 
vocational  agricultural  departments,  a  specially  quali- 
fied teacher  shall  be  employed  who  must  give  his 
attention  exclusively  to  agriculture,  and  must  work 
through  the  summer  months,  taking  his  vacation  in 
winter.  It  is  his  duty  to  supervise  the  work  of  the 
classes  in  agriculture  "from  seed  time  to  the  securing 
of  the  harvest."  In  high  schools  meeting  the  above 
conditions,  the  state  pays  two-thirds  of  the  instructor's 
salary. 

"  Part-time "  Work.  —  In  the  effort  to  make  the 
plan  practical  it  is  provided  that  the  pupil  shall  divide 

1  See  Bulletin,  "The  Massachusetts  Home  Project  Plan  of  Vocational 
Agricultural  Education." 


266  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

his  time  between  the  school  and  the  field.  In  other 
words,  "  Part-time  work,  as  applied  to  agricultural 
education,  means  that  the  student  must  spend  part  of 
the  time  required  for  his  education  in  productive  farm 
work,  preferably  at  home,  and  part  of  his  time  at 
school,  the  farm  work  and  school  study  being  closely 
correlated  by  the  school  at  points  selected  from  season 
to  season  or  from  year  to  year,  and  the  highest  possible 
educational  value  secured  by  competent  supervision." 

In  this  course  the  following  topics  are  all  considered: 
the  kinds  of  crops  that  can  best  be  grown  are  speci- 
fied, the  preparation  of  the  ground  for  seed,  the  choice 
and  preparation  of  seeds,  soils,  and  fertilizers,  the 
rotation  of  crops,  watering  and  draining,  the  protec- 
tion of  plants  from  their  enemies,  the  storing,  preserva- 
tion, and  marketing  of  vegetables  and  other  produce, 
the  preparation  of  foods  for  the  table  and  their  nutri- 
tive value. 

In  many  parts  of  the  country  the  offering  of  prizes 
for  the  best  yield  of  corn,  potatoes,  or  other  crop, 
seems  to  stimulate  actual  endeavor  on  the  part  of 
children.  The  record  of  one  boy  for  1912  is  given  as 
follows:  "Vegetable  garden,  five-eighths  of  an  acre, 
net  profit,  $44.35;  credited  self  for  labor,  $12.00; 
boy's  return,  $56.35;  the  vegetable  garden  constituted 
a  project  which  he  carried  on  under  school  supervision. 
In  addition,  he  set  out  and  cultivated  1000  strawberry 
plants,  raised  one  acre  of  corn  and  one-fourth  acre  of 
potatoes,  plowed  and  planted  one  acre  of  millet  and 
one-fourth  acre  of  buckwheat,  and  cared  for  three 
.cows,  one  horse  and  fifty  hens."  The  boy's  father 
was  not  able  to  work,  so  that  he  alone  was  responsible 


INSTRUCTION   IN  AGRICULTURE  267 

for  the  work.  With  allowance  made  for  his  work  and 
for  the  produce  sold,  the  boy  was  entitled  to  a  credit 
of  $164.60,  which,  added  to  his  "project"  account  of 
$56.35,  made  a  total  of  $227.05  as  the  result  of  his 
season's  work.  This  was  certainly  a  very  profitable 
summer's  work  for  a  schoolboy,  and  the  presentation 
of  a  concrete  example  of  this  kind  should  have  the 
effect  of  keeping  ambitious  boys  on  the  farm. 

What  Lessons  can  be  Taught.  —  Professor  Holden  well 
says,  "Real  education  is  teaching  the  boy  in  the  terms 
of  his  own  life.  You  never  really  reach  him  until  you 
do  this.  There  is  something  in  the  home  environment 
of  every  boy  that  holds  the  possibility  of  awakening 
his  sleeping  faculties  to  action  —  not  only  is  there  one 
thing  generally,  but  many.  And  these  things  are 
almost  invariably  connected  with  practical  work  of 
some  sort,  usually  with  the  activities  of  the  life  going 
on  about  him  outside  of  the  school.  Boys  and  girls 
are  interested  in  doing  things,  not  in  the  abstract 
speculations  with  which  the  text-books  are  so  largely 
filled."  And  he  has  proven  this  by  the  manner  in 
which  he  interested  his  boys,  and  later  their  parents, 
in  the  selection  of  better  seeds,  thereby  greatly 
increasing  the  yield  of  corn.  He  was  successful  also 
in  interesting  them  in  other  ways  connected  directly 
with  farm  life. 

The  design  here  is  to  indicate  work  that  is  quite 
within  the  scope  of  the  rural  school  and  concerning 
which  the  teacher  can  easily  inform  herself.  More 
scientific  and  extended  work  will  be  possible  in  well- 
organized  and  well-supervised  schools  where  agriculture 
is  taught.  Every  rural  school  should  have  some  in- 


268  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

struction  in  practical  agriculture.  This  truth  is  so 
fundamental  that  it  is  strange  that  it  has  not  long 
since  been  emphasized.  Recent  discussions  of  efficiency 
in  the  schools  have  brought  this  question  among  others 
to  the  attention  of  schoolmen  and  school  authorities. 
Lessons  of  this  character  are  quite  practicable  and  they 
should  make  farm  life  attractive  and  enable  the  farm 
to  produce  more  adequate  harvests.  The  average  crop 
of  wheat  in  Denmark  is  38  bushels  to  the  acre;  in 
Holland,  34;  in  England,  32;  in  Germany,  40;  and 
in  Minnesota,  13.* 

1.  Seeds.  —  Ignorance   as   to   the  character   of   seeds 
and  indifference  as  to  the  selection  of  them  often  result 
in    a    poor    harvest.     It    is    important    therefore    that 
instruction   concerning   seeds  be  given.     Early  in   the 
season,  in  March  or  earlier,  seeds  of  the  most  common 
crops  such  as  corn,  wheat,  beans,  and  cotton,  should 
be  soaked  in  water  and  then  placed  in  soil  and  properly 
watered    to    determine    if    they    will    germinate.     A 
shorter  process  consists  in  carefully  dissecting  the  kernel 
with  a  sharp  knife  after  soaking  it  in  water.     This  will 
be  found  a  most  profitable  undertaking,   very  simple 
and  easily  carried  out,  and  of  great  interest  to  the  chil- 
dren.    The   attention   of  farmers  should  be   called   to 
the  selection  of  the  most  promising  seed  at  the  time 
of  harvest  and  to  the  preservation  of  it  for  the  next 
planting. 

2.  Soils.  —  It    is    hardly    to    be    expected    that    the 
rural  school  will  be  able  to  make  a  scientific  study  of 

1  A  very  practical  book  on  this  subject  suitable  for  the  rural  teacher 
is  Nolan's  "One  Hundred  Lessons  in  Agriculture,"  published  by  Row, 
Peterson  &  Co.,  Chicago. 


INSTRUCTION   IN   AGRICULTURE  269 

soils.  Yet  it  can  teach  the  difference  between  sandy, 
clay,  and  humus  loam  and  the  necessity  of  moisture 
and  air  in  good  soil.  Nolan  suggests  the  following 
experiment,  which  will  determine  the  water-holding 
capacity  of  soils.  "Fill  three  small  earthen  flower-pots 
with  finely  pulverized  soils,  one  with  clay,  one  with 
sand,  and  one  with  humus  loam.  Weigh  these,  and  if 
possible  make  them  weigh  the  same.  Then  slowly 
pour  water  into  each  pot  until  the  soils  are  saturated 
and  the  water  begins  to  run  out  from  the  hole  at 
the  bottom  of  the  pot.  Weigh  the  pots  of  wet  soil 
and  determine  which  is  holding  the  most  water;  which 
soil  took  in  the  water  most  rapidly;  which  most 
slowly;  which  of  the  soils  could  absorb  the  heaviest 
shower;  which  soil  continues  to  drip  longest;  which 
drains  most  readily." 

Soils  from  different  fields  can  be  brought  in,  and  by 
this  simple  experiment  their  power  to  absorb  and 
retain  moisture,  and  therefore  their  ability  to  stand 
a  drought,  can  be  determined.  By  this  means  the 
farmer  can  determine  the  kind  of  crops  to  plant  in 
each  particular  soil  without  experimenting  with  a 
crop  in  which  a  whole  year's  harvest  may  be  lost. 

3.  Fertilizers.  —  The  elements  of  plant  growth  are 
found  in  the  soil.  Nitrogen,  potassium,  phosphorus, 
and  calcium  are  often  found  in  insufficient  quantities, 
and  these  must  be  supplied  by  the  right  kind  of  fer- 
tilizers. Farmers  often  go  to  the  expense  of  purchasing 
fertilizers  with  no  knowledge  as  to  their  suitability 
to  the  soil  and  to  the  crop  planted  and  therefore  they 
fail  to  get  results.  It  would  be  far  better  for  them  to 
meet  the  expense  of  an  analysis  of  the  soil  by  an  expert 


270  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

in  order  to  determine  just  which  fertilizer  is  needed. 
While  it  is  not  expected  that  the  rural  school  teacher 
shall  be  able  to  perform  such  work,  she  can  at  least 
direct  attention  to  it. 

4.  Rotation  of  crops.  —  The  farmers  of  Europe  for 
centuries  have  been  taking  crops  from  the  same  soil, 
which,  instead  of  becoming  exhausted,  has  actually 
grown  more  fertile.  We  have  seen  that  they  reap 
three  and  four  times  the  harvest  per  acre  that  we  do, 
and  while  superior  methods  of  cultivation  and  cli- 
matic conditions  are  doubtless  important  factors  in 
securing  these  results,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  chief 
reason  is  found  in  the  systematic  rotation  of  crops. 
While  their  lands  have  been  tilled  for  a  thousand 
years  and  have  grown  richer,  ours  are  often  sadly 
depleted  after  scarcely  a  hundred  years  of  tillage. 

The  European  farmers  follow  a  scientific  plan  of 
rotation,  —  wheat,  potatoes,  beets,  clover,  rye,  millet, 
etc.,  succeed  and  alternate  one  another.  Besides  this 
the  fertilizers  are  carefully  selected  so  as  not  only  to 
meet  the  wants  of  each  particular  crop,  but  also  to 
preserve  the  soil  for  the  future.  There  is  no  such  thing 
as  " skinning  the  land"  to  get  the  most  out  of  it,  re- 
gardless of  future  crops.  We  have  suggestive  illustra- 
tions of  the  folly  of  our  system  of  farming  in  the 
depleted  tobacco  and  cotton  lands  of  the  South,  and 
the  wheat  lands  of  the  West.  Planters  continued  the 
same  crop  year  after  year,  taking  from  the  soil  and 
giving  nothing  back  to  it,  until  the  land  had  nothing 
more  to  give.  I  saw  a  gentleman  gathering  seeds 
from  a  tulip  tree  a  few  days  ago,  and  when  I  asked 
him  what  he  was  going  to  do  with  them,  he  replied, 


INSTRUCTION   IN   AGRICULTURE  271 

"I  am  going  to  plant  them  in  the  woods.  We  are 
constantly  taking  things  from  our  forests  and  giving 
nothing  back  to  them.  I  take  bushels  of  seeds  with 
me  every  time  I  go  to  Europe  and  plant  them  in  the 
forests  over  there.  I  also  bring  large  quantities  of 
seeds  home  with  me  for  the  same  purpose/' 

Change  of  crop  draws  new  elements  from  the  earth 
and  the  sky,  rests  the  soil,  and  restores  an,d  rein- 
vigorates  it.  Variety  of  crop  does  not  stake  all  on  a 
single  venture,  the  failure  of  which  may  mean  ruin. 
Thus  some  fields  may  be  devoted  to  wheat,  others  to 
corn  or  to  potatoes,  or  beets,  or  flax,  and  if  one  of  these 
fails,  the  others  may  produce  a  harvest. 

5.  Insects.  —  It  is  claimed  that  insects  every  year 
destroy  crops  in  this  country  to  the  value  of  several 
hundred  million  dollars.  As  I  write,  the  army-worm  and 
the  grasshoppers  are  devastating  many  sections  of  the 
country,  and  the  agricultural  departments  of  a  number 
of  states  are  hurrying  hundreds  of  men  to  the  afflicted 
sections  with  the  means  of  destroying  these^enemies  of 
the  farmer.  This  is  one  of  the  most  hopeful  signs  of 
progress  of  recent  times. 

Some  years  ago,  while  visiting  my  native  place  in 
New  York  State,  I  came  over  the  brow  of  a  mountain, 
and  in  looking  down  into  the  distant  valley  I  saw  a 
single  tree  at  the  edge  of  a  beautiful  maple  grove 
that  showed  signs  of  caterpillars.  When  I  called  the 
attention  of  my  companion  to  this,  he  replied  indiffer- 
ently, "Yes,  that  is  the  work  of  caterpillars,  but  I 
don't  think  it  will  amount  to  anything."  A  year 
later  I  made  that  same  trip  and  every  maple  tree  in 
that  vicinity  was  as  destitute  of  leaves  as  in  mid- 


272  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

winter.  The  cocoons  of  the  worms  were  found  upon 
every  tree  and  shrub,  and  even  the  clapboards  of  the 
farmhouses  and  barns  were  covered  with  them.  A 
third  year  the  pest  came  in  reinforced  numbers  and  the 
trees,  having  lost  their  vitality  from  the  repeated  de- 
struction of  their  leaves,  were  dying.  Today  many 
of  the  beautiful  maple  forests  of  that  section  have  been 
wiped  out.  If  this  pest  had  been  resisted  with  vigor- 
ous treatment,  such  as  is  being  employed  at  present 
against  the  army-worm  and  the  grasshopper,  thousands 
of  trees  might  have  been  saved  and  great  loss  averted. 
The  Germans  have  long  since  learned  how  to  care  for 
their  forests  and  we  would  do  well  to  follow  their 
example. 

A  decade  ago  the  San  Jose  scale  attacked  and  de- 
stroyed all  the  peach  trees  of  New  Jersey  and  Dela- 
ware. A  spraying  mixture  was  found  that  conquered 
this  enemy,  trees  have  been  replanted,  and  the  growers 
are  again  reaping  an  abundant  harvest. 

A  knowledge  of  the  habits  of  insects  and  of  the 
means  of  destroying  them  is  of  utmost  importance  to 
the  farmer.  Some  insects  that  attack  the  leaves  of 
plants  can  be  destroyed  by  spraying  the  leaves  with 
a  poisonous  substance  like  lead  arsenate.  Nolan 
suggests  a  mixture  of  lime-sulphur  and  lead  arsenate. 
The  former  "  checks  the  spread  of  diseases  such  as 
apple  scab,  '  frog-eye/ ,  fungus,  brown  rats,  etc.,  and 
the  lead  arsenate  kills  the  'apple  worm/  the  leaf-eating 
caterpillars,  and  other  chewing  insects. " 

There  are  also  insects  that  suck  the  sap  from  the 
tree  or  plant,  such  as  different  kinds  of  scales.  These 
are  destroyed  by  spraying  with  lime-sulphur  or  a  mix- 


INSTRUCTION   IN   AGRICULTURE  273 

ture  of  kerosene  and  soapsuds.  The  lime-sulphur  can 
be  purchased  or  made.  Nolan's  recipe  is  as  follows: 
"Lime,  8  pounds;  sulphur,  16  pounds;  water,  10 
gallons.  Boil  together  for  about  forty  minutes;  then 
dilute  one  gallon  of  the  mixture  with  ten  of  water." 

Eternal  vigilance  as  well  as  intelligence  on  the  part 
of  the  farmer  in  the  spring  of  the  year  is  necessary,  or 
insects  will  destroy  his  plants,  make  his  fruit  wormy, 
and  rob  him  of  the  results  of  his  labor.  Elemental 
lessons  concerning  these  matters  can  be  taught  in  the 
rural  school,  and  nothing  the  children  can  learn  will 
be  more  practical,  more  useful,  and  more  interesting 
both  to  them  and  to  their  parents. 

6.  The  dairy.  —  The  products  of  the  dairy  have  a 
great  deal  to  do  with  the  comfort  and  the  sustenance 
of  the  human  family.  Moreover,  millions  of  people 
gain  their  livelihood  in  connection  with  some  form  of 
dairying.  We  already  understand  that  cleanliness  is 
the  most  important  factor  in  dairying,  and  that  milk  is 
one  of  the  articles  of  food  most  difficult  to  keep  clean. 
And  yet  it  is  surprising  how  much  ignorance  and  care- 
lessness still  exist  in  connection  with  this  product. 

Then,  too,  the  importance  of  testing  milk  to  deter- 
mine the  amount  of  butter  fat  it  contains  should  be 
emphasized.  By  this  means  it  can  be  definitely  de- 
termined which  cows  are  most  valuable  and  most 
profitable.  The  testing  of  milk  is  a  very  simple  pro- 
cess which  can  easily  be  taught  in  the  rural  school, 
where  it  would  be  sure  to  arouse  interest  and  be  of 
practical  good.  The  underlying  thought  in  this  whole 
discussion  is  how  to  help  the  rural  school  and  the 
patrons  whose  children  attend  it. 


274  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

7.  Farm  accounts.  —  Many  farmers  drift  along  from 
year  to  year  without  keeping  any  account  of  their 
various  enterprises,  and  therefore  without  knowing 
exactly  which  ones  are  yielding  a  profit  and  which 
are  carried  on  at  a  loss.  By  a  very  simple  system  of 
bookkeeping  most  valuable  hints  can  be  gained  for 
future  guidance.  It  would  certainly  be  suggestive  if 
a  farmer  were  to  compare  the  cost  of  the  seed,  the 
fertilizer,  and  the  labor  necessary  to  raise  a  crop  and 
the  expense  of  harvesting  and  marketing  it,  with  the 
actual  return,  and  thus  determine  the  exact  amount 
of  profit.  The  same  account  might  be  kept  with  the 
dairy,  and  indeed  with  each  cow  in  the  dairy,  with  the 
hens,  the  hogs,  the  sheep,  and  the  vegetable  garden. 
Lessons  would  be  learned  that  would  be  excellent  guides 
for  future  activities.  Comparisons  with  former  years 
would  not  only  be  interesting  but  profitable.  Ex- 
cellent suggestions  as  to  the  manner  of  keeping  farm 
accounts  are  given  by  Nolan.  The  system  employed 
is  not  vital.  The  point  is  that  some  record  of  the 
various  farm  enterprises  should  be  kept,  and  instruc- 
tion in  simple  bookkeeping  for  this  purpose  should 
be  a  part  of  the  duty  of  every  rural  schoolteacher. 
It  will  be  a  help  to  the  future  farmers  and  farmers' 
wives,  if  not  an  immediate  aid  to  present  farmers. 

8.  Ttie  school  garden.  —  Many  schools  have  secured 
a  tract  of  land  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  building, 
and  on  this  the  pupils  are  set  to  work,  and  the  lessons 
practically  demonstrated.  One  of  the  difficulties  con- 
nected with  the  successful  maintenance  of  the  school 
garden  is  that  the  school  is  closed  from  June  until 
September,  and  thus  over  two  months  are  left  when  the 


INSTRUCTION   IN   AGRICULTURE  275 

teacher  is  away  and  there  is  no  one  to  do  the  work. 
In  many  parts  of  the  country  this  is  the  period  when 
most  care  is  needed  in  cultivating  and  harvesting  the 
crops  and  in  fighting  insects.  Many  things,  however, 
can  be  done  in  the  time  at  command  in  showing  the 
children  how  the  soil  is  prepared,  the  seed  selected  and 
planted,  and  the  cultivation  carried  on.  They  can 
be  instructed  in  the  thinning  and  pruning  as  well  as 
in  the  harvesting  and  marketing.  In  agricultural 
schools,  which  continue  in  session  through  the  summer, 
and  where  the  plan  of  part  time  for  study  and  part  time 
for  outdoor  work  is  practiced,  the  above  handicap 
disappears.  Much  is  being  done,  however,  in  many 
common  schools,  and  much  more  can  be  done  with  the 
school  garden  idea,  an  activity  in  which  children  are 
easily  interested. 

9.  Additional  topics.  —  There  are  many  other  topics 
that  the  rural  teacher  will  be  able  to  take  up,  for 
example,  fruit-growing,  gardening,  the  care  of  animals 
and  poultry,  etc.,  depending  upon  the  interests  of  each 
locality.  If  she  lacks  knowledge  of  these  subjects,  there 
is  'an  abundance  of  books,  pamphlets,  and  other  avail- 
able agricultural  literature,  from  which  the  necessary 
information  can  be  obtained. 

As  our  population  increases  and  our  public  domain 
diminishes,  the  cost  of  living  will  inevitably  be  higher 
unless  the  soil  is  made  to  yield  a  higher  average  of 
crops.  It  therefore  behooves  us  by  intelligent  and 
scientific  farming  to  increase  the  productiveness  of 
our  cultivated  land  at  least  as  fast  as  our  population 
increases.  The  difference  between  a  crop  of  13  bushels 
to  the  acre  in  one  of  our  best  wheat-growing  states, 


276  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

and  38  bushels  to  the  acre  in  Denmark  certainly 
leaves  a  wide  margin  of  possibilities.  And  there  is 
no  reason  why  that  difference  cannot  be  largely  can- 
celed. What  greater  contribution  to  the  public  wel- 
fare can  the  school  offer  than  to  aid  in  this  work? 

Hon.  P.  P.  Claxton,  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education,  predicts  that  every  rural  school  will  some 
day  have  attached  to  it  a  farm  of  twenty  or  thirty 
acres  provided  with  a  house  for  the  teacher  and  his 
family.  He  says,  "This  farm,  if  properly  operated  by 
the  teacher,  will  be  a  kind  of  model  farm,  and  a  center 
of  the  agricultural  and  social  life  of  the  district/' 
While  this  vision  undoubtedly  looks  into  the  distant 
future,  it  suggests  a  condition  of  things  that  would 
make  rural  life  attractive,  popularize  farming,  bring 
better  returns  for  the  investment,  and  increase  the 
crops  commensurate  with  the  growth  of  population. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

EFFICIENCY  IN  EDUCATION 

Criticism  of  the  School.  —  A  great  deal  has  been  said 
in  recent  times  about  efficiency  in  the  various  activities 
of  life,  —  in  manufacturing  and  commerce,  in  public  life, 
in  war,  in  household  relationships,  and  in  every  other 
field  of  human  enterprise.  No  wonder  that  the  school, 
which  has  the  duty  of  preparing  boys  and  girls  for 
all  these  activities,  should  be  called  upon  to  focus 
its  attention  upon  the  question  of  its  own  efficiency. 

I  have  already  shown  (Chap.  IV)  that  great  ad- 
vance in  education  has  been  made,  that  criticism  of 
our  schools  is  by  no  means  recent,  and  that  just  and 
constructive  criticism  is  always  welcomed  by  teachers 
to  whom  the  defects  of  the  schools  are  best  known. 

Criticism  of  the  schools  is  by  no  means  a  new  thing. 
Let  me  quote  from  a  report  of  the  board  of  education 
of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  schools :- 

"A  few  of  the  schools  excel  in  reading,  while  most 
of  them,  both  in  reading  and  spelling,  are  lamentably 
deficient.  There  is  an  unaccountable  reluctance  on 
the  part  both  of  teachers  and  scholars  to  use  the 
spelling  book,  a  book  which,  in  the  days  of  their 
fathers,  was  ever  acknowledged  'the  only  sure  guide 
to  the  English  tongue.'  For  this  reason,  or  some  other, 
we  have  but  very  few,  if  any,  good  spellers.  The 
committee  are  unanimously  of  the  opinion  that  the 


278  TEACHING:     ITS   AIMS   AND   METHODS 

attainments  in  this  branch  are  altogether  inferior  to 
what  was  witnessed  in  our  schools  twenty  or  thirty 
years  ago,  in  the  days  of  '  spelling  matches/  and 
1  choosing  sides/  and  l  taking  places/  when  spelling 
was  generally  the  most  spirited  and  interesting  exercise 
in  school.  It  is  sincerely  hoped  that,  hereafter,  much 
more  attention  will  be  paid  in  our  schools  to  spelling." 

Commissioner  Kendall  says:  "This  has  a  strangely 
familiar  sound,  but  it  was  not  written  this  year  nor 
last  year  nor  ten  years  ago  but  more  than  sixty  years 
ago,  in  1843. " 

Still,  the  cry  from  the  press,  the  business  men,  and 
many  parents  continues  to  be,  "The  schools  arc 
teaching  too  many  fads;  get  back  to  the  'Three  RV 
of  the  good  old  times. "  Now,  no  teacher  will  deny 
that  the  school  that  neglects  to  teach  the  children 
to  read,  spell,  write,  and  cipher  is  failing  in  its  duty. 
These  things  come  first  in  educational  development; 
they  are  fundamental,  and  weakness  in  them  is  most 
easily  detected.  A  misspelled  word,  an  incorrect 
pronunciation,  a  faulty  use  of  language,  stumbling  in 
reading  aloud,  poor  penmanship,  are  apparent  to  the 
most  uncritical.  Weakness  in  these  things  is  easily 
discovered,  and  is  generally  accepted  as  an  evidence  of 
ignorance.  Hence  they  must  receive  constant  atten- 
tion in  the  school,  must  be  eternally  drilled  upon 
until  the  pupils  have  thoroughly  mastered  them. 
The  public  have  a  right  to  expect  this  and  the  school 
must  meet  this  expectation.  I  assert  that  the  children 
of  our  schools  read  better,  spell  better,  write  better, 
and  cipher  better  than  did  the  children  of  a  generation 
ago.  But  they  do  not  read,  spell,  write,  nor  cipher  as 


EFFICIENCY   IN   EDUCATION  279 

well  as  they  should.  These  formal  studies  are  the 
" tools"  of  education,  without  which  educational  prog- 
ress is  impossible.  Therefore  the  importance  of  them 
should  be  emphasized  with  all  possible  force. 

But  there  is  another  side  to  this  matter  of  criticism 
that  in  all  fairness  should  be  considered.  While  the 
old-time  school  had  only  a  few  subjects  to  teach,  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  many  new  duties  have  been 
thrust  upon  the  modern  school.  In  former  times  most 
people  lived  on  farms  or  in  small  villages  and  there 
wire  plenty  of  duties,  " chores/'  for  both  boys  and  girls 
to  perform.  No  boy  in  those  times  ever  needed  to 
ask  the  question  which  now  so  often  pesters  parents, 
" Father,  what  shall  I  do?"  There  was  always  plenty 
to  do  and  children  were  early  taught  to  be  helpful. 
Most  valuable  lessons  were  thus  learned.  I  doubt 
if  any  man  or  woman  who  was  brought  up  under  those 
conditions  ever  regrets  having  had  such  experiences. 
Manual  training  thus  took  care  of  itself.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  a  boy  brought  up  on  a  farm  had  to 
know  something  of  more  than  seventy  different 
trades  or  occupations.  Thus  hand  as  well  as  head  was 
employed  in  the  development  of  the  country  child. 

How  things  have  changed  in  recent  years !  The  cities 
are  rapidly  increasing,  while  the  country  is  decreasing 
in  population.  Even  in  the  country  and  on  the  farm, 
modes  of  living  have  greatly  changed,  owing  to  changes 
in  the  methods  of  farming,  to  the  utilization  of  ma- 
chinery in  the  place  of  hand  labor,  to  improved  facili- 
ties of  transportation.  For  similar  reasons  great 
changes  have  taken  place  in  the  mechanical  trades 
and  in  business  enterprises.  The  blacksmith  buys 


280  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

much  of  the  material  he  needs  already  prepared  by 
machinery  in  the  factory.  He  merely  has  to  fit  and 
shape  it  for  its  particular  use.  Formerly  he  was 
obliged  to  forge  the  horseshoe  or  wagon-clip  out  of 
a  bar  of  iron,  and  very  likely  he  even  had  to  make  his 
own  tools.  The  same  was  true  of  the  carpenter,  the 
cabinet-maker,  the  cooper,  the  wagon-maker,  and  the 
plumber.  It  required  seven  years  of  apprenticeship 
to  learn  a  trade;  now  three  years  is  ample  time. 

In  the  household  fully  as  great  changes  have  been 
made  through  the  introduction  of  vacuum  cleaners, 
gas  and  electrical  heating,  and  other  labor-saving  ap- 
pliances. Besides,  as  I  have  shown  elsewhere,  much 
work  formerly  performed  in  the  home  is  no  longer 
done  there.  Equal  changes  have  been  made  in  busi- 
ness practices.  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  use  of  the 
manual  arts  in  the  home  has  greatly  diminished,  and 
the  school  is  called  upon  to  furnish  a  training  that 
formerly,  from  the  nature  of  things,  took  care  of  itself. 
This  must  not  be  forgotten  in  making  comparisons 
between  the  old-time  and  the  present  schools. 

The  More  Important  Duty  of  the  School.  -  While  the 
"  Three  RV  are  the  first  essential,  they  are  by  no 
means  the  most  important.  One  must  have  tools 
before  one  can  build  a  house,  but  the  house  is  of  far 
more  account  than  the  tools.  To  pronounce  correctly 
and  with  proper  inflection,  and  be  able  to  read  aloud 
in  a  way  to  please  listeners,  is  an  excellent  accomplish- 
ment; but  to  get  the  content  of  what  you  read  is  of 
far  more  importance;  for  one  reads  the  paper,  the 
magazine,  the  book,  for  the  sake  of  the  thought,  the 
content,  a  hundred  times  as  often  as  one  reads  aloud 


EFFICIENCY   IN   EDUCATION  28 1 

for  the  edification  of  others.  Reading  for  informa- 
tion is  a  principal  source  of  knowledge.  Therefore  the 
main  purpose  of  learning  to  read  is  to  enable  us  to  get 
the  thoughts  of  others,  to  find  out  what  the  world 
has  done  and  is  doing.  And  yet,  I  repeat,  we  must 
not  neglect  to  teach  children  to  read  aloud  correctly 
and  intelligibly. 

To  write  a  beautiful  hand  is  an  accomplishment. 
But  to  have  thoughts  to  express  and  to  be  able  to 
express  them  accurately  is  writing  in  the  larger  sense, 
which  is  of  greater  importance  than  good  penmanship. 
But  we  must  not  fail  to  teach  the  pupils  to  write 
legibly  and  with  facility.  Rapidity  and  accuracy  in 
adding,  subtracting,  multiplying,  and  dividing,  and  in 
other  manipulations  in  arithmetic  is  essential;  but 
to  be  able  to  apply  these  things  in  practical  life  is 
after  all  the  purpose  of  studying  this  subject.  I 
have  endeavored  to  show  in  foregoing  chapters  on  these 
subjects  how  these  applications  are  to  be  made.  The 
point  here  is  that  even  with  the  common  subjects  of 
the  school  course  the  content  side  is  of  far  more  im- 
portance than  the  form  side.  Nor  are  these  larger  de- 
mands thus  outlined  by  any  means  the  only  demands 
made.  The  world  has  made  mighty  progress  during 
the  last  half  century.  New  discoveries  and  inventions 
have  been  made;  new  conditions  have  arisen  which 
have  brought  to  the  front  many  new  problems  in  hu- 
man life.  The  school,  which  prepares  men  for  life, 
must  meet  these  problems.  While,  a  generation  ago, 
a  knowledge  of  the  common  branches  sufficed  for  that 
time,  it  would  not  suffice  now.  A  knowledge  of  geog- 
raphy, of  the  various  branches  of  science,  of  history, 


282  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

of  literature,  and  of  art  is  not  only  necessary  for  an 
intelligent  comprehension  of  life  and  a  preparation 
for  usefulness  and  enjoyment  such  as  the  age  offers,  but 
it  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  equipment  for  ordinary 
business  life.  How  often  one  hears  some  such  expres- 
sion as  this  from  an  elderly  business  man:  " Business 
methods  have  changed.  It  is  not  so  easy  to  succeed 
in  business  as  it  once  was.  Competition  is  so  sharp 
that  a  man  must  be  alert,  active,  and  up  to  the  times, 
or  he  will  surely  fail."  I  have  already  shown  how  the 
school  has  been  compelled  to  introduce  the  manual 
arts.  More  and  more,  parents  are  thrusting  the  whole 
duty  of  education  upon  the  school.  Intellectual  train- 
ing has  long  been  considered  the  special  function  of 
the  school.  Now  it  must  assume  also  the  physical 
and  the  moral  training  of  the  youth,  and  there  is  a 
strong  tendency  to  introduce  religious  training  into 
the  public  school,  a  duty  that  old-time  parents,  who 
regarded  children  as  the  gift  of  God,  gladly  assumed 
as  a  sacred  duty.  The  home  is  the  peculiar  institution 
that  should  undertake  this  latter  duty,  and  neither 
Sunday  school  nor  day  school  can  excuse  parents 
from  that  duty.  Unfortunately,  the  home  is  so  sadly 
neglecting  this  work  that  the  school  must  undertake 
it  or  it  will  never  be  done. 

How  the  School  Meets  the  New  Demands.  —  When 
criticism  of  the  schools  is  offered,  the  greatly  in- 
creased demands  and  unusual  conditions  of  the  present 
day  should  not  be  forgotten.  This  is  written  not  by 
way  of  apology,  but  as  an  explanation;  for  educators, 
better  than  anyone  else,  understand  the  defects  of 
American  education,  as  we  have  seen.  The  schools 


EFFICIENCY   IN   EDUCATION  283 

are  earnestly  seeking  to  meet  new  conditions  and  thus 
keep  in  touch  with  the  progress  of  modern  times. 

Let  us  consider  the  means  that  have  been  intro- 
duced to  meet  these  new  demands. 

1.  Prevocational    schools.  —  Of    course    all    education 
which  precedes  that  which  prepares  for  some  specific 
occupation  is  prevocational.     In  a  more  limited  sense 
manual   training   and   domestic   science   are   spoken   of 
as  the  prevocational  subjects.     They  are  usually  intro- 
duced into  the  late  grammar  grades.     It  is  the  kind 
of   work    that   every   child  should   have,  regardless   of 
what   his   future   career  may   be.     As   already   shown, 
they   are   purely   educational.     For   further    considera- 
tion of  these  subjects,  reference  is  made  to  the  chapters 
on  Manual  Training  and  Household  Arts.     In  Chapter 
IV,  I  have  attempted  to  show  what  the  child  should 
know.     This  knowledge  surely  is  prevocational. 

2.  The    supplementary    or    continuation    schools.  —  We 
have  not    yet  developed  this  work    by  any  means  so 
far  as  the  Germans  have.     Their  continuation  schools 
are    a    distinct   part    of    their    school    system,    offering 
opportunity  for  children  to  supplement  their  common 
school  training  by  thorough  and  varied  courses,  differ- 
ing according   to   the   needs   of  a   community  and  its 
ability   to   supply   those   needs.     In   many   cities  it  is 
possible  for  a  boy  to  prepare  himself  in  these  schools, 
without    interference    with    his    daily    occupation,    for 
almost  any  trade  or  calling. 

A  beginning  in  this  direction  has  been  made  in  this 
country  in  vacation  schools,  night  schools,  art  schools, 
and  industrial  or  vocational  schools.  Many  of  the 
night  schools  lay  emphasis  upon  instruction  needed 


284  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

by  foreign-born  children  and  by  others  employed  during 
the  day.  Reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  other  com- 
mon branches  are  taught.  Few  night  schools  are  able 
to  offer  work  intended  to  fit  for  a  specific  vocation. 
In  some  of  the  art  schools  mechanical  drawing,  ele- 
mentary chemistry,  applied  physics,  and  other  matters 
connected  with  the  industries  of  a  locality  are  taught. 
Vacation  schools  usually  offer  work  designed  to  bring 
pupils  who  have  fallen  behind  in  their  work  of  the 
year  up  to  grade.  In  some  cases  opportunity  is  offered 
to  ambitious  students  who  desire  to  shorten  their 
course.  In  higher  institutions,  vacation  schools  or 
summer  schools  are  conducted,  in  which  courses  are 
offered  that  lead  to  a  degree  or  a  certificate  of  ad- 
vancement. Many  cities  are  maintaining  industrial 
schools  in  which  printing,  mechanical  drawing,  elec- 
trical work,  machine-shop  work,  carpentry,  and  cabinet- 
making  are  taught.  In  some  instances  these  lead 
directly  to  a  trade,  but  the  work  has  hardly  been  car- 
ried far  enough  to  have  a  decided  influence  in  pre- 
paring the  American  youth  to  gain  a  livelihood.  The 
cost  of  equipment  and  the  limited  facilities  offered, 
together  with  the  lack  of  interest  on  the  part  of  chil- 
dren and  parents,  will  account  for  the  comparatively 
few  who  take  this  work. 

3.  Vocational  schools.  —  The  laws  of  New  Jersey 
define  vocational  education  to  be,  "Any  form  of  edu- 
cation, whether  given  in  a  school  or  elsewhere,  the 
purpose  of  which  is  to  fit  the  individual  to  pursue 
efficiently  a  recognized  profitable  employment."  The 
schools  just  described  may  partake  somewhat  of  this 
character.  Vocational  schools  proper  are  intended 


EFFICIENCY   IN   EDUCATION  285 

for  youths  fourteen  or  more  years  of  age  who  are 
unable  to  continue  in  the  regularly  provided  schools, 
as  in  the  high  schools.  Wisconsin,  since  1911,  has 
taken  advanced  ground  upon  the  subject  of  vocational 
education.  It  requires  the  pupil  to  attend  school 
not  less  than  five  hours  a  week  during  the  day  time  and 
employers  are  required  to  pay  the  child's  wages  for 
the  time  spent  in  school.  Two  hours  of  this  time 
must  be  devoted  to  English,  citizenship,  business 
practice,  physiology,  hygiene,  and  the  use  of  safety 
devices.  The  remaining  time  is  devoted  to  such 
other  branches  as  may  be  approved  by  the  state  board 
of  industrial  education.  These  schools  are  established 
by  the  direct  vote  of  any  school  district.  There  is  a 
special  board  of  local  control  consisting  of  the  local 
superintendent,  two  employers  of  labor,  and  two 
skilled  employees.  In  country  districts  the  local 
board  consists  of  the  county  superintendent,  ex  officio, 
and  six  members  elected  by  popular  vote.  Wisconsin 
follows  the  experience  of  German  communities  in  plac- 
ing vocational  schools  under  a  separate  board  with 
some  members  specially  acquainted  with  vocational 
enterprises. 

Illinois  has  under  consideration  the  adoption  of  a 
similar  system.  The  following  are  some  of  the  features 
of  the  law  proposed  in  this  state:  "i.  Vocational  con- 
tinuation day  schools  are  for  the  youth  of  both  sexes 
between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  eighteen  years  who 
are  employed,  or  are  not  pupils  in  other  schools.  At 
these  vocational  schools  such  instruction  shall  be  given 
as  will  render  more  efficient  the  practical  work  of  the 
factory,  the  shop,  the  store,  the  office,  the  garden,  or 


286  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

the  home."  2.  Vocational  evening  schools  for  pupils 
over  eighteen  years  of  age  for  the  same  purpose  as 
above  shall  be  established.  3.  Vocational  continuation 
schools  are  to  be  opened  for  servants,  apprentices,  and 
clerks.  Other  forms  of  vocational  schools  are  provided 
which  may  be  established  as  any  community  may 
determine. 

The  success  of  vocational  education  in  Wisconsin, 
where  about  30,000  students  are  pursuing  these  courses, 
has  attracted  the  attention  of  other  states,  and  it  would 
seem  that  the  movement  is  destined  to  grow.  Prob- 
ably no  city  in  the  world  has  so  effective  a  plan  of 
vocational  education  as  Munich,  under  the  remark- 
able leadership  of  Dr.  Kerschensteiner. 

4.  The  six-and-six  plan.  —  Many  communities  are 
changing  from  the  traditional  plan  of  the  eight  years' 
elementary  and  the  four  years'  high  school  course  to 
the  six-and-six  plan;  that  is,  a  six  years'  elementary 
course  and  a  six  years'  high  school  course,  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades  of  the  lower  school  being  attached 
to  the  high  school.  The  following  are  the  advantages 
of  the  six-and-six  plan:  i.  The  normal  child  should 
complete  the  elementary  studies  at  the  end  of  the 
sixth  grade.  2.  Much  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  is  spun  out  and  unnecessarily  repeated.  3.  Sub- 
jects in  these  grades  can  be  better  given  in  the  high 
school  with  its  different  methods  and  more  sympa- 
thetic atmosphere.  4.  The  change  of  school  at  the 
beginning  of  the  adolescent  period  is  more  natural  than 
at  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  of  age,  the  time  when  most 
children  now  enter  the  high  school.  5.  Having  thus 
been  started  in  high  school  work,  the  child  is  less 


EFFICIENCY   IN   EDUCATION  287 

likely  to  leave  school  than  he  is  now.  Experience  has 
verified  this  wherever  the  six-and-six  plan  has  been 
tried.  6.  There'could  be  a  better  adjustment'of  studies. 
Foreign  languages,  for  example,  could  be  begun  earlier, 
while  the  memory  is  more  accurate  and  retentive.  7. 
Subjects  requiring  several  years  of  study  could  be  carried 
on,  if  not  by  the  same  teacher,  at  least  under  the  same 
administration.  8.  The  .discipline  of  the  school  could 
be  better  adjusted  to  the  pupils,  they  being  given  more 
initiative  and  responsibility  than  is  possible  in  the  ele- 
mentary school.  9.  The  six  high  school  years  may  be 
divided  into  a  junior  and  a  senior  course,  each  of  three 
years.  This  would  make  possible  the  establishment  of 
a  variety  of  junior  schools,  such  as,  industrial,  com- 
mercial, agricultural,  scientific,  or  classical,  suitable  to 
the  needs  and  ability  of  any  community.  These  could 
lead  to  and  articulate  with  the  senior  high  school  for 
such  students  as  are  able  to  continue  in  school. 

Such  an  arrangement  would  provide  vocational  train- 
ing for  the  children  of  a  city,  inasmuch  as  they  would 
be  allowed  to  choose  the  school  that  offered  the  kind 
of  work  they  desire  to  pursue.  It  is  believed  that  such 
a  scheme  would  materially  aid  in  solving  the  prob- 
lem of  preparing  children  for  greater  efficiency.  The 
larger  number  of  children  retained  in  school  obtain  a 
better  preparation  for  whatever  vocation  they  may 
enter  upon  after  leaving  the  junior  school,  while  those 
who  desire  to  go  on  with  their  education  can  do  so  in 
the  senior  high  school,  which  also  prepares  them  for 
still  higher  courses  of  study. 

5.  Part-time  schools.  —  In  some  communities  the 
school  and  the  industrial  and  business  enterprises 


288  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

have  arranged  a  cooperative  plan  whereby  school  and 
shop  or  other  outside  work  alternate.  Cincinnati 
has  developed  such  a  plan  in  connection  with  the  uni- 
versity courses,  and  a  number  of  other  cities  are  making 
attempts  to  adapt  the  scheme  to  their  local  needs.  A 
notable  instance  is  found  in  the  plan  worked  out  in 
York,  Pa.  As  this  plan  seems  to  be  working  very 
successfully  and  as  it  excellently  illustrates  the  idea 
of  part-time  schools,  a  description  of  it  will  serve  our 
purpose  in  presenting  this  subject.  It  is  as  follows: 
During  the  first  high  school  year  no  attempt  at  alter- 
nation is  made.  But  the  boys  are  given  a  general 
knowledge  of  the  different  trades,  sent  to  the  shops 
to  watch  the  work,  required  to  write  themes,  and  are 
otherwise  engaged  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  the 
trade  they  would  like  to  learn  and  for  which  they  are 
best  fitted.  The  whole  year  is  spent  in  school.  When 
vacation  comes,  the  boys  are  put  into  shops  to  begin 
the  trade  they  have  selected,  arrangements  having 
previously  been  made  with  the  employers.  From  the 
beginning  of  the  second  year  and  till  the  end  of  the 
high  school  course  the  boys  alternate  school  and  shop 
work,  the  change  being  made  each  week.  If  at  any 
time  a  boy  is  found  to  have  made  a  mistake  in  the 
choice  of  a  trade,  he  is  allowed  to  take  up  another  one. 
Each  boy  is  required  to  make  a  written  report  of 
his  week's  work  upon  returning  to  school.  These  re- 
ports are  examined  by  the  industrial  director  of  the 
school  in  order  to  note  whether  proper  progress  has 
been  made  and  to  discover  when  he  has  so  far  mas- 
tered his  tasks  as  to  be  able  to  enter  a  new  field. 
The  director  also  visits  the  shops  where  the  boys  are 


EFFICIENCY   IN   EDUCATION  289 

employed  from  time  to  time,  so  as  to  supervise  their 
work  and  also  to  prevent  employers  from  exploiting 
the  work  by  keeping  a  boy  on  a  job  that  he  has 
already  mastered.  The  school  insists  that  the  boy  is 
there  to  learn,  and  so  soon  as  he  has  learned  a  par- 
ticular phase  of  a  trade,  he  must  be  moved  on  to  a 
new  phase.  It  will  appear  at  once  that  the  employer 
must  be  in  complete  sympathy  with  the  movement 
and  not  expect  the  learner  to  work  for  profit.  While 
the  employer  necessarily  must  be  at  some  inconvenience 
and  possible  loss  in  thus  participating  in  the  scheme, 
the  far-sighted  manufacturers  of  York  have  found  that 
it  is  a  good  investment  rather  than  a  philanthropy, 
for  the  superior  training  afforded  furnishes  them  later 
with  better  mechanics  and  more  skilled  workmen. 
The  difficulty  in  most  communities  is  to  bring  managers 
of  concerns  to  an  appreciation  of  this  fact.  Coopera- 
tion of  the  kind  so  well  established  in  York  is  therefore 
hard  to  secure. 

Work  in  the  shop  is  also  made  to  correlate  with  the 
school  work.  The  reports  alluded  to  are  turned  over 
to  the  teachers  of  English  for  grammar,  letter-writing, 
and  general  composition.  Composition  has  a  very 
different  meaning  to  a  boy  when  he  writes  about  some- 
thing in  which  he  is  interested,  than  when  he  must 
write  upon  an  abstract  theme.  It  appeals  to  him  as 
something  vitally  connected  with  his  success  in  life 
and  he  will  naturally  do  his  best.  Arithmetic,  draw- 
ing, physics,  geography,  and  other  subjects  are  easily 
correlated  with  the  work  of  shop  and  school.  Literary 
and  practical  work  go  forward  hand  in  hand,  and  a 
knowledge  of  the  one  deepens  the  boy's  respect  for 


290  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

the  other.  Books  treating  on  the  occupations  are  put 
into  the  pupils'  hands  and  they  thus  gain  a  wide 
historical  and  scientific  knowledge  of  their  chosen  life- 
work. 

During -the  four  years'  high  school  course  a  boy 
obtains  about  two  and  one-half  years'  credit  as  an 
apprentice,  as  all  his  vacations  are  spent  in  the  shops. 
He  is  paid  somewhat  more  than  the  ordinary  appren- 
tice, and  the  employers  justify  this  on  the  ground  of  his 
superior  intelligence  and  schooling.  Upon  completing  the 
course,  the  boy  is  given  a  diploma  signed  by  represen- 
tatives of  the  two  institutions  that  have  taken  part  in  his 
education,  the  school  and  the  manufactory,  for  the  one 
has  been  educating  him  as  truly  as  the  other.  After 
graduation  he  readily  finds  employment  as  a  mechanic, 
and  after  a  brief  trial  he  is  admitted  to  full  journeyman 
privileges  and  emoluments. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  the  literary  work  of  the 
high  school  course  does  not  suffer  materially  by  this 
plan.  Indeed,  in  many  cases,  it  seems  not  to  have 
suffered  at  all,  as  is  shown  by  the  manner  in  which 
graduates  from  these  courses  sustain  themselves  in 
colleges  and  in  other  higher  institutions.  The  explana- 
tion is  found  in  the  deeper  interest  awakened,  in  the 
ambitions  inspired,  and  in  the  mutual  reactions  caused 
by  employment  of  both  intellectual  and  motor  activi- 
ties. 

The  principal  difficulty  in  carrying  out  the  part-time 
school,  as  already  pointed  out,  is  found  in  the  un- 
willingness of  employers  unselfishly  to  cooperate. 
Without  this  cooperation  success  cannot  be  attained. 
With  it  the  solution  of  many  puzzling  educational  prob- 


EFFICIENCY   IN   EDUCATION  2QI 

lems,  such  as  the  preparation  of  better  trained  artisans, 
more  regular  and  longer  continued  attendance  at  school, 
a  deeper  interest  in  school  work,  and  a  higher  respect 
for  manual  activities,  would  seem  to  be  at  hand.  A 
great  deal  remains  to  be  done,  but  a  beginning  has 
been  made  that  should  materially  aid  in  preparing  our 
children  for  better  citizenship  and  greater  efficiency  in 
obtaining  a  livelihood.  Thus  the  school  is  not  only  a 
preparation  for  life,  but  the  school  actually  becomes 
life. 


CHAPTER   XX 

MORAL  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  SCHOOL 

Importance  of  Instruction  in  Morals.  —  Never  before 
in  the  history  of  education  has  it  been  so  clearly  rec- 
ognized that  education  must  have  an  ethical  basis. 
The  educated  thief  is  a  far  greater  menace  to  society 
than  the  ignorant  one,  for  he  will  not  only  be  more 
skilful  in  planning  and  executing  his  crime,  but  also 
be  more  shrewd  in  escaping  punishment.  The  Herbar- 
ium school  of  pedagogy  lays  particular  emphasis  upon 
the  moral  side  of  education,  defining  education  as  the 
development  of  all  the  powers  of  man  to  the  end  that 
good  character  may  be  formed.  The  general  policy 
in  American  schools  is  to  make  moral  training  indirect 
and  incidental  rather  than  to  give  it  a  formal  place 
in  the  curriculum  or  to  take  note  of  it  in  the  schedule 
of  daily  work.  There  is  a  growing  feeling  among 
educators,  however,  that  the  school  is  losing  in  power 
by  such  negative  practice.  This  feeling  is  substan- 
tiated by  the  too  evident  disrespect  for  law,  and  by 
the  alarming  fact  that  the  increase  in  youthful  crimi- 
nals is  greater  than  the  increase  in  population,  and  that 
our  institutions  for  juvenile  delinquents  are  over- 
crowded. 

The  presence  of  these  conditions  has  led  many  think- 
ers to  feel  that  the  indirect  moral  influence  of  the 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   SCHOOL  293 

school,  exerted  through  the  wholesome  environment, 
the  high  ethical  standards,  and  the  earnest  work  of 
teachers  of  pure  lives  and  holy  example,  however  ex- 
cellent it  may  be,  is  not  sufficient  to  meet  the  emer- 
gency. There  is  an  earnest  and  imperative  call  for 
something  else,  and  the  answer  to  this  call  is  the 
greatest  problem  now  confronting  American  education. 

France  abolished  religious  instruction  from  her 
public  schools  in  1886.  The  increase  in  juvenile  crime 
was  at  once  so  marked  as  to  cause  general  alarm. 
It  was  evident  that  the  diminishing  of  the  restraints 
of  religion  consequent  upon  its  withdrawal  from  the 
schools  was  having  an  immediate  effect  upon  the  moral 
standards  of  the  children.  Consequently  the  govern- 
ment, while  it  could  not  restore  religious  instruction, 
introduced  moral  instruction  as  a  definite  requirement 
of  the  school  curriculum.  It  was  not  many  years  be- 
fore there  was  noted  a  marked  change  for  the  better 
in  the  moral  attitude  of  the  people,  showing  that 
definite  and  systematic  moral  teaching  in  the  school 
has  a  beneficial  effect. 

Religion  and  Morals.  —  There  is  a  close  connection 
between  religion  and  morals.  Indeed,  systems  of 
morals  are  founded  upon  systems  of  religion.  The 
moral  ideals  of  China  find  their  basis  in  the  teach- 
ings of  Confucius,  which  have  recently  been  reaffirmed 
as  the  state  religion.  The  morals  of  the  Moham- 
medans find  their  basis  in  the  teachings  of  the  Koran. 
The  Veda  likewise  furnishes  the  moral  as  well  as  the 
religious  code  of  the  Hindus.  So,  too,  the  teachings 
of  the  Bible  are  for  the  Christian  the  foundation  of 
moral  ideals. 


294  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

Failure  to  distinguish  between  religion  and  morals 
is  common,  many  holding  that  they  are  identical. 
Religion  teaches  the  relation  of  man  to  God;  morals 
teach  the  relation  of  man  to  his  fellowman.  The 
Ten  Commandments  furnish  the  basis  of  obligations, 
religious  and  moral,  the  first  four  teaching  the  duty 
of  man  to  God  and  the  last  six  the  duty  of  man  to 
other  men.  The  fourth  also,  "  Remember  the  Sabbath 
day  to  keep  it  holy,"  surely  has  a  bearing  upon  man's 
duty  to  his  fellowmen,  especially  that  of  the  employer 
to  the  employee,  as  well  as  possessing  a  spiritual 
significance.  Observance  of  the  Sabbath  is  not  simply 
a  recognition  of  God's  command.  True,  it  awakens 
and  stimulates  a  reverence  for  sacred  things,  but  it 
also  has  a  decided  moral  influence,  in  that  it  turns 
one  away  from  the  harassing  care  and  heavy  burdens 
of  everyday  life,  and  furnishes  an  opportunity  for  rest 
and  recreation,  for  upbuilding  of  body,  mind,  and 
soul,  and  for  the  recuperating  of  spent  forces.  It  is 
well  established  that  from  a  business  standpoint  it 
pays  to  set  apart  one  day  in  seven  for  rest.  And  so 
the  Ten  Commandments  are  the  basis  of  moral  law, 
and  if  these  are  not  sufficient,  Jesus  added  another  in 
the  words,  "A  new  commandment  I  give  unto  you, 
That  ye  love  one  another;  as  I  have  loved  you,  that 
ye  also  love  one  another."  This,  in  the  deepest  sense, 
is  religious,  and  it  was  intended  to  bind  the  disciples 
together  for  the  propagation  of  His  doctrine  and  the 
spread  of  His  Gospel.  But  it  surely  furnishes  the 
very  best  suggestion  for  the  conduct  of  men  for  all 
time,  without  reference  to  religious  creed.  The  moral- 
ist who  rejects  the  spiritual  message  of  Jesus  certainly 


MORAL  INSTRUCTION  IN   THE   SCHOOL  295 

cannot  escape  His  teaching  in  the  words  of  the  Golden 
Rule,  "Do  unto  others  as  ye  would  that  they  should 
do  unto  you/'  for  that  is  the  corner-stone  of  the  moral 
creed.  Therefore,  we  must  turn  to  the  Bible  and  to  the 
teachings  of  religion  for  the  basis  of  moral  instruction. 

Sister  Helen  Angela  gives  four  fundamentals  of 
character  as  follows:  "Religion  first,  the  stone  of  the 
corner  which  many  builders  have  rejected;  a  will, 
active  and  strong  as  well  as  good;  self-control  to  hold 
the  emotions  in  check;  and  the  habit  of  right  action." 
She  also  adds,  "There  is  no  common  mold  in  which 
to  form  character.  Each  child  must  be  permitted 
to  keep  his  own.  God  must  have  intended  it  so. 
No  one  thinks  of  converting  buttercups  into  daisies 
or  roses  into  lilies;  we  should  miss  the  buttercups 
and  roses  wofully.  It  is  not  right  for  anyone  in  au- 
thority to  project  her  pet  ideal  of  character  on  her 
subjects;  if  she  does  she  is  making  something  arti- 
ficial, straining  God's  ideal  for  each  individual." 

Means  of  Moral  Instruction.  —  It  should  be  the  aim  of 
principal  and  teachers  to  make  the  life  of  the  school,  in 
every  activity  and  relation,  count  for  moral  education. 
In  working  toward  this  aim  the  following  means  may 
be  suggested: 

i .  The  character  of  the  teacher.  —  Appropriate  means 
should  be  employed  to  develop  and  form  the  moral 
character  of  the  pupils.  There  is  the  indirect,  daily, 
quiet,  ever  effective  influence  of  the  life  of  the  teacher, 
which,  as  countless  men  and  women  can  testify,  has 
formed  the  ideals  of  pupils,  inspired  their  ambitions, 
purified  their  motives,  and  shaped  their  lives.  Many 
a  man  who  is  serving  his  fellowmen  in  noble  and  self- 


296  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

sacrificing  devotion,  who  is  noted  for  his  integrity  and 
beloved  for  his  altruism,  owes  to  some  humble  school- 
teacher the  inspiration  of  the  life  he  leads.  This  is  one 
of  the  teacher's  greatest  rewards,  and  because  of  the 
opportunity  which  the  calling  affords,  teaching  becomes 
to  any  man  or  woman  who  seeks  to  be  a  blessing  to 
mankind  the  noblest  of  all  professions.  It  calls  for 
the  same  spirit  that  the  Master  inculcated  when  He 
said,  "  Inasmuch  as  ye  have  done  it  unto  one  of  the 
least  of  these  my  brethren  ye  have  done  it  unto  Me." 
The  personal  example  and  the  life  of  the  teacher  is  the 
greatest  indirect  influence  in  molding  the  moral  life  of 
the  youth  of  any  land.  It  is  a  supreme  satisfaction 
that  the  great  body  of  American  teachers  measures  up 
so  nobly  to  the  highest  ideals  of  moral  life.  This  fact 
is  the  greatest  influence  that  exists  for  the  ethical  up- 
building of  our  future  men  and  women. 

2.  Insistence  on  regularity  of  attendance.  —  In  twenty 
years,  from  1875  to  1895,  the  school  attendance 
in  England  increased  from  1,500,000  to  6,000,000. 
During  the  same  period  the  number  of  arrests  of 
juvenile  delinquents  decreased  from  14,000  to  5000 
per  annum.  The  only  discernible  cause  for  this  de- 
crease is  the  influence  of  the  schools,  a  fact  which  is 
a  remarkable  commentary  on  the  moral  effect  of  keep- 
ing children  at  school.  It  has  generally  been  found 
that  juvenile  crime  increases  during  the  long  summer 
vacation,  when  the  children  have  nothing  to  do  and 
when  they  are  not  under  the  control  of  the  school. 
The  maintenance,  under  the  direction  of  teachers, 
of  vacation  schools,  summer  schools,  and  public  play- 
grounds has  resulted  in  a  great  diminution  of  offenses 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION   IN   THE    SCHOOL 


297 


-by  children  against  the  law.  One  police  judge  testifies 
that  during  the  time  that  such  schools  were  in  session 
the  number  of  juvenile  offenders  in  his  court  de- 
creased sixty  per  cent,  and  that  as  soon  as  the  summer 
schools  closed  the  fact  became  at  once  apparent  by 
the  increased  number  of  arrests. 

The  boy  out  of  school  who  is  not  employed  is  likely 
to  get  into  mischief.  The  truant  is  the  embryo  tramp, 
and  the  surest  way  to  stamp  out  the  vagrant  evil  is 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  nomadic  habits  by  the 
child.  Regular  attendance  inculcates  regular  habits 
and  teaches  the  boy  to  stick  to  his  job.  Compulsory 
attendance  laws,  efficiently  enforced,  thus  become  a 
strong  moral  agency.  Many  a  child  is  without  any 
good  home  influence,  and  the  street  is  a  poor  place  in 
which  to  learn  steady  habits,  to  imbibe  a  proper  sense 
of  duty,  or  to  acquire  high  ideals.  To  make  the  school 
wholesome,  attractive,  and  interesting  is  the  work  of 
the  teacher.  But  to  require  the  child  to  attend  regu- 
larly is  the  work  of  the  state  and  the  parents.  "Will 
you  please  make  my  boy  come  to  school?  He  will 
not  come  unless  I  bring  him/'  said  a  Berlin  mother  to 
a  school  principal  as  she  delivered  her  six-year-old  boy 
to  him  one  morning.  "It  is  your  business  to  see  that 
your  boy  is  in  school,  and  mine  to  attend  to  him 
when  he  is 'here,"  replied  the  principal;  and  he  added 
a  serious  warning  in  the  words,  "I  am  afraid,  madam, 
that  you  have  failed  in  the  training  of  your  boy,  else 
you  would  not  have  such  trouble  in  getting  him  to 
school." 

The  large  majority  of  the  children  will  be  reached 
by  the  ordinary  influences  of  school  life.  But  there> 


298  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

will  always  be  a  few  that  cannot  be  so  reached,  and 
these  constitute  the  small  minority  from  whom  future 
vagabonds  are  recruited.  It  is  for  these  largely  that 
restrictive  laws  must  be  made  and  courts  maintained. 
So  the  school  and  the  state  must  make  unusual  efforts 
to  save  the  few  who  constitute  the  greatest  element  of 
future  danger.  Enforcement  of  regular  attendance 
will  have  a  decided  influence  upon  the  moral  character 
of  the  child. 

Nor  is  it  sufficient  to  rely  upon  rewards,  incentives, 
or  other  superficial  means  of  securing  regular  attend- 
ance, although  many  of  these  are  unobjectionable  and 
may  have  a  temporary  effect.  The  child  must  learn 
to  be  regular,  because  his  irregularity  defeats  the  work 
of  the  school  and  therefore  trespasses  upon  the  rights 
of  others.  Moreover,  irregularity  is  a  bad  business 
practice  and  hardly  prepares  one  for  a  steady  job. 
What  has  been  said  of  irregularity  applies  also  to  want 
of  punctuality.  The  same  argument  holds  true  against 
this  evil,  while  on  the  other  hand  the  moral  effect 
of  the  habit  of  punctuality  is  as  beneficial  as  that 
produced  by  the  habit  of  regularity.  Tardiness  delays 
the  work  of  the  school  and  is  therefore  a  sin  against 
others.  No  parent  can  say,  "If  I  choose  to  keep  my 
child  home  or  let  him  come  late,  it  is  my  business,  and 
nobody's  else,"  for  these  evils  affect  the  whole  life 
of  the  school  and  therefore  are  the  business  of  the 
school  authorities.  Emphasis  should  be  laid  upon  the 
moral  aspect  of  these  matters  as  the  final  consideration. 

3.  Importance  of  the  physical  side.  —  The  condition 
of  the  body  has  much  to  do  with  one's  moral  life. 
Henry  Ward  Beecher  once  said,  "Some  people  deserve 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   SCHOOL  299 

more  credit  for  being  decent,  than  others  do  for 
being  saints."  Doubtless  he  had  in  mind  the  weak- 
nesses and  inherent  tendency  to  evil  that  some  men 
seem  to  possess,  but  I  think  that  his  statement  may 
well  be  applied  to  physical  conditions  as  well.  It  is 
very  hard  for  one  to  be  good-natured  if  indigestion  is 
disturbing  the  internal  machinery,  or  if  rheumatism 
is  racking  one's  body.  There  are  times  of  peculiar 
suffering  when  it  takes  all  the  qualities  of  the  " saint" 
to  keep  one  " decent." 

Medical  inspection  in  the  schools,  in  correcting 
bodily  ailments,  in  preventing  the  spread  of  disease, 
in  insisting  on  proper  hygienic  conditions,  and  in 
making  the  school  more  wholesome  and  sanitary,  thus 
making  possible  more  efficient  intellectual  work  and 
adding  to  the  comfort  and  happiness  of  the  children, 
should  have  a  great  influence  upon  the  moral  character 
of  the  pupils. 

Every  time  the  teacher  requires  the  child  to  stand 
erect  when  he  recites,  to  carry  his  body  properly  when 
he  walks  or  marches,  or  to  sit  properly,  he  is  giving  the 
child  a  feeling  of  self-respect,  a  command  over  him- 
self, and  a  conscious  power  fundamental  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  moral  sense.  Nothing  so  surely  indicates 
moral  degeneracy  as  a  slouching  gait,  a  lack  of  physical 
poise,  and  a  want  of  dignified  bodily  carriage,  as  wit- 
nessed, for  example,  in  the  ordinary  tramp.  The  man 
who  has  control  over  his  body,  created  in  the  image 
of  God,  and  who  carries  it  well,  is  apt  to  possess  some- 
thing of  godlikeness  in  his  character. 

A  great  deal  of  attention  is  now  being  given  to  the 
nourishment  of  children.  It  has  been  found  that  no 


300  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

good  intellectual  work  is  possible  when  the  body  is 
not  well  nourished.  Some  schools  are  furnishing  food 
at  cost  for  those  who  can  afford  to  pay,  and  free 
lunches  to  poor  children.  Such  practice  is  perfectly 
logical  if  the  school  is  to  perform  its  duty.  Who 
can  say  how  large  a  factor  bodily  weakness  is  in  de- 
termining moral  accountability?  Many  a  man  takes 
a  drink  because  of  the  abnormal  craving  which  follows 
eating  the  badly  selected,  ill-adapted,  ill-cooked,  and 
poorly  combined  food  he  has  been  served.  The  truth 
is  that  many  a  woman  is  responsible,  in  a  large  meas- 
ure, for  her  husband's  intemperate  habits.  Instead 
of  satisfying  his  normal  appetite,  the  food  creates  an 
abnormal  one;  instead  of  meeting  the  needs  of  the 
body,  it  loads  the  system  with  unwholesome  substances 
which  cannot  be  digested  and  which  often  cause  the 
victim  to  seek  relief  in  alcoholic  drink.  Nothing 
would  do  more  for  the  cause  of  temperance  than  a 
knowledge  of  the  hygienic  values  of  foods  and  a  proper 
understanding  of  the  science  and  the  art  of  cooking. 
The  teaching  of  domestic  science,  therefore,  should 
not  only  add  materially  to  the  health  and  comfort 
of  the  American  people,  but  it  should  also  have  a  salu- 
tary effect  upon  their  moral  life. 

4.  The  employment  of  the  pupils'  time.  —  Every 
teacher  recognizes  that  the  secret  of  good  order  in 
the  classroom  is  found  in  keeping  every  child  busy 
upon  some  task  in  which  he  is  interested.  The  trouble 
is  to  find  work  that  meets  this  demand,  that  is,  that 
arouses  and  holds  the  child's  interest.  The  extension 
of  the  school  curriculum  to  include  a  much  wider 
variety  of  subjects,  especially  those  that  call  for 


MORAL  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   SCHOOL  301 

handiwork,  has  aided  materially  in  the  solution  of  the 
problems  of  school  government.  There  could  be  no 
better  argument  for  the  success  of  the  modern  school. 
We  still  find  critics  who  are  demanding  a  return  to 
the  old,  narrow  course  of  study  consisting  mainly  of 
the  "  Three  R's."  Such  a  reactionary  movement 
would  not  silence  the  critics:  indeed,  their  number 
would  increase  a  hundredfold,  and  justly  so.  I  have 
shown  elsewhere  (page  231)  that  the  needs  of  modern 
life  put  duties  upon  the  school  that  were  not  dreamed 
of  half  a  century  ago.  Discipline  is  better  in  the 
schools,  not  only  because  the  teachers  are  better 
trained  but  also  because  the  schools  are  offering  suit- 
able, practical,  and  interesting  work  for  the  children. 
It  is  very  rare  now  that  the  child  must  be  driven  to 
school;  he  loves  to  go  because  it  attracts  and  interests 
him.  This  is  the  best  evidence  that  the  modern  school 
is  proceeding  along  the  right  lines. 

The  school  is  compelled  to  offer  a  wide  curriculum, 
especially  in  the  field  of  manual  and  industrial  arts, 
subjects  which  are  so  much  neglected  in  the  home  and 
which  are  so  essential  in  this  industrial  age.  The 
greater  the  variety  of  subjects  offered,  the  more 
nearly  will  it  be  possible  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
individual  child,  a  principle  which  is  the  slogan  of  mod- 
ern education.  And  in  the  meeting  of  these  needs 
not  only  will  the  problem  of  discipline  be  solved  and 
the  moral  character  of  the  child  be  formed,  but  in 
addition  the  pupil  will  be  fitted  for  that  occupation 
in  life  for  which  he  is  best  adapted. 

Industrial  schools,  wherever  established,  are  proving 
conclusively  that  these  ends  will  be  attained.  I  have 


302  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

elsewhere  described  a  visit  to  an  industrial  school  which 
had  been  organized  at  the  outset  principally  as  a 
school  for  incorrigibles,  but  which  soon  ceased  to  have 
that  purpose  for  the  simple  reason  that  its  boys  soon 
ceased  to  be  incorrigible.  Additional  details  may  be 
interesting  as  they  have  a  bearing  upon  this  theme. 
One  boy  who  had  been  expelled  from  nine  public 
schools  was  pointed  out.  Another  had  drawn  a  knife 
upon  a  teacher.  A  third  was  an  habitual  truant. 
One  had  spent  a  term  at  a  reform  school.  Many  of 
these  boys  had  an  unsavory  history.  Yet,  I  never 
saw  better  order  in  any  other  school.  Every  boy  was 
happy,  contented,  obedient,  and  interested  in  his  work. 
Truancy  and  incorrigibility  were  unknown.  Some  of 
them  were  engaged  in  mechanical  drawing,  others  were 
setting  type,  a  number  were  installing  electric  wires 
for  lighting,  telephoning,  and  for  house-bells,  and 
others  were  engaged  in  various  branches  of  wood-work 
and  metal-work. 

Upon  leaving  the  school  these  boys  engaged  in  use- 
ful trades  and  became  good  citizens.  The  principal 
showed  me  letters  from  employers  of  his  old  boys  in 
which  every  one  of  them  testified  that  the  boys  were 
making  good.  How  much  better  for  the  community 
to  spend  money  for  the  support  of  such  a  school  than 
to  spend  it  for  court  expenses  and  for  jails!  And 
besides  the  individual  redemption  of  these  boys,  they 
are  saved  to  society  to  add  to  its  wealth  rather  than 
to  be  a  menace  and  an  expense. 

Suitable  employment  in  the  school  thus  becomes  a 
tremendous  moral  force,  not  only  in  the  successful 
management  of  the  school  itself,  but  also  in  the  prepa- 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   SCHOOL  303 

ration  for  useful  citizenship  and  in  the  formation  of 
moral  character.  To  possess  a  trade  or  a  calling  and  to 
be  employed  in  it,  is  a  great  safeguard  against  a 
vicious  life.  The  great  temptations  come  to  a  man 
not  when  he  is  employed  but  rather  when  he  is  out  of 
work  or  at  leisure.  It  thus  becomes  the  duty  of  the 
school  to  teach  the  child  how  to  employ  his  time  when 
he  is  not  employed,  how  properly  to  occupy  himself 
during  his  leisure  hours.  This  knowledge  is  the  best 
antidote  against  the  saloon  or  the  place  of  evil  resort, 
to  which  many  go  because  they  do  not  know  how  to 
spend  their  time  when  free  from  work. 

The  education  that  fails  to  teach  the  art  of  self- 
employment  will  neglect  one  of  the  most  important 
moral  agencies.  Social,  political,  and  religious  activi- 
ties, and  books,  furnish  abundant  means  of  growth,  so 
that  no  one  need  be  without  a  constant  stimulus  to 
improve  and  enjoy  himself,  especially  while  the  needs 
of  his  fellowmen  are  forever  inviting  him  to  useful 
activity. 

5.  Influence  of  environment.  —  There  is  no  doubt 
of  the  uplifting  and  refining  influence  of  one's  sur- 
roundings. The  presence  of  a  beautiful  picture,  like 
a  "Sistine  Madonna/'  Leonardo's  "Last  Supper,"  or 
Hoffman's  "Christ  in  the  Temple,"  exercises  an  ele- 
vating effect  upon  those  who  are  brought  in  contact 
with  it.  The  decoration  of  the  windows  and  walls 
of  churches  and  cathedrals  with  works  of  art,  especially 
with  illustrations  of  scenes  and  characters  from  the 
Bible,  is  sure  to  exercise  a  holy  influence  upon  the 
worshiper. 

So,  too,  excellent  pictures  and  flowers  in  the  home 


304  TEACHING:   ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

and  the  schoolroom  serve  wonderfully  to  stimulate 
moral  life.  Patriotism  also  ~is  taught  by  portraits  of 
Washington,  Lincoln,  Grant,  and  by  such  pictures  as 
"  Washington  Crossing  the  Delaware"  and  "The 
Battle  of  Gettysburg,"  provided  such  pictures  are 
explained  as  to  their  historical  or  artistic  value.  Even 
if  no  explanations  are  given,  the  child  will  uncon- 
sciously absorb  something  elevating. 

Beautifying  the  schoolroom  and  schoolgrounds  not 
only  cultivates  the  aesthetic  sense,  but  the  ethical  and 
the  spiritual  as  well.  And  these  influences  in  the  school 
are  the  more  important  because  the  home  is  so  often 
destitute  of  them.  A  strong  argument  for  the  play- 
ground movement  is  found  in  the  fact  that  it  removes 
the  children  for  a  part  of  the  day  at  least  from  the 
unwholesome  atmosphere  of  the  street  and  the  de- 
grading life  of  many  homes.  I  have  shown  elsewhere 
how  such  movements  have  materially  diminished  crime. 
Life  on  the  street  offers  little  promise  of  moral  uplift; 
on  the  contrary  it  often  counteracts  the  influence 
of  school  and  the  home  and  debases  the  character. 
Environment  can  thus  be  made  an  important  agency 
in  the  moral  training  of  children. 

6.  Material  from  fact  and  fiction.  —  Children  are  always 
interested  in  stories.  From  history,  biography,  and 
genera]  literature  an  abundance  of  material  most  fit- 
ting to  inspire  ethical  ideals  can  be  selected.  Stories 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  Napoleon,  Cromwell,  Wash- 
ington, Lincoln,  Gladstone,  Garfield,  McKinley,  and 
a  host  of  others  are  of  never-failing  interest  to  children. 
Gems  of  literature  can  be  taught,  selections  from 
masterpieces  presented,  and  the  pupils  can  be  led  to 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION  IN   THE   SCHOOL  305 

acquire  a  taste  for  the  good  and  an  abhorrence  for 
the  bad.  This  field  supplies  an  unlimited  amount  of 
suitable  material  which  can  be  classified  for  use  in 
connection  with  any  specific  lesson  to  be  taught. 
Schaeffer's  " Bible  Readings  for  Schools"1  contains  an 
excellent  arrangement  for  the  morning  exercises.  It 
suggests  Scripture  readings  bearing  upon  every  feature 
of  moral  as  well  as  religious  life.  The  following  are 
some  of  the  selections  having  a  particular  bearing 
upon  morals:  " David  and  Jonathan/'  "The  Unmerci- 
ful Servant,"  "The  Laborers  in  the  Vineyard,"  "The 
Good  Samaritan,"  "The  Prodigal  Son,"  "Love  your 
Enemies,"  "Forgiveness,"  "Humility,"  "The  Virtu- 
ous Woman,"  "Purity,"  "Strong  Drink,"  "The 
Slothful  and  the  Diligent,"  "Exhortations  to  various 
Virtues,"  "Love  or  Charity." 

The  law  in  most  states  permits  the  reading  of  the 
Scriptures  at  the  opening  of  school  without  comment  or 
explanation.  The  determination  to  prevent  sectarian 
discussions  in  the  public  school  has  in  some  states  led 
to  the  placing  of  restrictions  upon  Bible  reading.  No 
one  wants  the  doctrines  of  any  one  sect  taught  in  the 
public  school,  and  yet  the  American  people  do  want 
their  children  trained  in  the  essentials  of  faith,  which, 
as  I  have  already  shown,  is  the  foundation  of  morals. 
Everybody  would  object  to  the  teaching  of  the  peculiar 
dogmas  of  any  church  in  schools  supported  by  public 
funds.  In  our  eagerness  to  avoid  all  appearance  of 
sectarian  teaching,  we  have  gone  to  an  extreme  and 
excluded  fundamentals  upon  which  all  agree.  There 
is  a  feeling  of  dissatisfaction  with  the  present  situation, 
1  The  American  Book  Co.,  New  York. 


306  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

not  only  on  the  part  of  religious  bodies,  but  also  among 
educators,  and  with  the  American  people  at  large. 

The  following  incident  shows  that  parents  of  all  be- 
liefs would  welcome  a  change  in  this  respect  if  a  sane 
and  judicious  plan  were  adopted.  A  young  teacher 
had  charge  of  a  school  in  a  rural  community.  She 
was  a  devoted  and  conscientious  girl  who  believed  that 
education  includes  the  development  of  the  spiritual  side 
as  well  as  the  other  sides  of  the  child.  When  she  had 
gained  the  confidence  of  the  parents,  she  visited  every 
family  and  asked  permission  to  give  her  pupils  some 
simple  religious  instruction.  Catholics,  Presbyterians, 
Methodists,  Baptists,  and  Jews  alike  not  only  gave  their 
consent  but  actually  welcomed  the  suggestion  most 
gladly.  She  therefore  introduced  Bible  study  without 
friction  and  with  most  excellent  results.  Of  course  the 
teacher  must  possess  discretion  and  common  sense. 

From  the  standpoint  of  morals  what  one  of  the 
selections  from  Schaeffer  would  need  be  restricted  as  to 
" comment  or  explanation "?  Indeed,  should  not  every 
one  of  these  passages  be  explained,  so  that  the  children 
may  understand  and  apply  them?  Let  the  reading 
of  one  of  the  stories,  like  the  "Good  Samaritan/' 
"David  and  Jonathan,"  or  "The  Slothful  and  the 
Diligent/'  be  followed  by  a  simple  explanation  and  by 
concrete  application,  and  such  teaching  could  not  fail 
to  have  most  beneficent  effect  upon  the  children. 

So,  too,  stories  from  history  and  fiction  can  be  util- 
ized. Publishers  are  supplying  the  schools  with  an 
abundance  of  literature  drawn  from  history  and  fiction 
which  is  suitable  for  children  of  any  age.  There  are 
stories  of  the  great  men  of  all  lands  and  all  periods, 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION  IN   THE   SCHOOL  307 

clothed  in  language  that  a  child  can  understand,  to 
be  had  for  five  cents  a  copy.  The  teacher  is  thus  able 
not  only  to  tell  the  story  of  the  heroism,  patriotism, 
unselfishness,  or  nobility  of  some  character,  but  also 
to  put  suitable  stories  into  the  hands  of  the  children. 
This  practice,  available  to  every  teacher,  affords  the 
richest  means  of  moral  instruction. 

7.  Morals  ideals  in  sports.  —  The  sports  of  children 
deserve  much  greater  attention  than  is  being  paid  to 
them.  Many  teachers  give  little  attention  to  the 
games  of  their  pupils  at  recess  or  out  of  school.  If 
assigned  to  recess  duty,  they  regard  it  as  a  bore,  and 
meet  it  as  a  perfunctory  task  rather  than  as  a  re- 
markable opportunity,  not  only  to  gain  the  good-will 
of  the  children,  but  also  to  shape  their  intellectual  and 
moral  life.  The  recess  should  be  a  joy  to  both  teacher 
and  pupil,  because  it  furnishes  an  opportunity  for  vig- 
orous, wholesome,  and  joyous  outdoor  sport.  Many  a 
teacher  gets  inspiration  for  her  school  work  on  the 
playground  and  learns  lessons  in  discipline  there  that 
never  can  be  obtained  elsewhere.  The  teacher  that 
can  and  will  enter  into  the  sports  of  her  pupils  is  sure 
to  find  discipline  easy,  besides  being  able  to  exert  a 
powerful  influence  upon  all  sides  of  the  child's  life. 
Often  children  reveal  their  real  natures  on  the  play- 
ground rather  than  in  the  schoolroom.  How  often 
is  it  found  that  boys  who  are  indifferent  to  their  lessons, 
and  perhaps  insubordinate  to  discipline,  are  the  leaders 
in  sports  and  the  dominating  spirits  of  the  playground. 
Experience  has  often  proved  that  it  is  these  boys  that 
become,  in  later  life,  the  leaders  in  the  world's  activi- 
ties. What  an  opportunity  is  thus  furnished  to  study 


308  TEACHING:     ITS   AIMS   AND   METHODS 

the  real  child  and  so  to  shape  his  development  that 
the  best  in  him  may  be  brought  out  and  the  world 
made  the  richer  because  of  his  life! 

The  president  of  a  city  board  of  education  said  to 
me,  "  Whenever  we  need  a  new  principal  we  are  choos- 
ing a  man,  for  this  reason.  For  years  we  had  been 
having  trouble  with  discipline  in  one  of  our  schools  and 
were  puzzled  to  know  what  to  do.  We  finally  placed 
a  young  man  in  charge  who  entered  into  the  sports 
of  the  boys.  He  organized  baseball,  football,  and 
other  games,  making  it  a  rule  that  no  boy  who  was 
delinquent  either  in  his  conduct  or  his  studies  could 
participate  in  a  contest.  The  problem  of  discipline 
has  been  solved,  and  it  would  be  hard  to  find  a  more 
enthusiastic  or  loyal  class  of  children  anywhere.  We 
think  that  a  man  understands  boys,  knows  their  games, 
is  interested  in  them,  can  enter  into  the  spirit  of  their 
sports,  and  therefore  we  are  bound  to  have  at  least 
one  man  in  every  school."  Whether  a  man  or  a 
woman,  the  teacher  must  be  able  to  enter  into  the  life 
of  the  children  on  the  playground. 

A  teacher  witnessed  a  match  game  of  ball  between 
two  rival  schools.  There  was  a  great  deal  of  profanity 
indulged  in  by  the  boys.  The  following  Saturday  a 
return  match  was  played  and  the  teacher  was  asked 
to  umpire.  He  consented  on  condition  that  there  was 
to  be  no  bad  language  used.  Before  opening  the  game, 
one  of  the  captains  called  the  two  teams  together  and 
said,  "Boys,  no  swearing  today.  The  umpire  will  not 
stand  for  it."  There  was  no  bad  language  used  during 
the  game.  It  was  an  unusual  opportunity  of  which 
the  young  man  had  taken  advantage. 


MOItAL   INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   SCHOOL  309 

Many  sports  lend  themselves  peculiarly  to  the  in- 
culcations of  moral  ideals.  Generosity,  honesty,  un- 
selfishness, truthfulness,  cooperation,  and  the  sense  of 
fair  play  must  be  practiced  in  baseball,  football,  and 
many  other  games.  And  it  is  difficult  to  teach  these 
lessons  in  the  daily  school  work,  for  the  reason  that 
there  is  no  struggle  for  supremacy,  as  in  games.  The 
boy  is  not  thrown  upon  his  own  resources,  and  there 
are  few  occasions  to  exercise  generosity,  unselfishness, 
and  other  virtues.  The  sports  of  children  can  thus 
be  made  an  important  agency  for  their  moral  up- 
building. Neglect  of  this  agency  may  make  the 
recess  a  danger  which  will  counteract  pretty  nearly  all 
the  good  influences  of  the  school. 

8.  Moral  basis  of  all  school  activities.  —  The  teacher 
should  be  so  imbued  with  all  the  importance  of  char- 
acter building  that  every  school  activity  should  be 
made  to  have  an  ultimate  moral  basis.  The  child 
must  be  regular  in  attendance,  not  to  escape  punish- 
ment, not  to  get  on  the  honor  roll,  not  in  order  to  get 
his  name  in  the  newspaper,  and  not  even  for  the  sake 
of  keeping  up  with  his  class,  however  unobjectionable 
these  devices  may  be.  He  must  learn  to  be  regular 
and  punctual  because  it  is  right,  because  it  is  his  duty, 
because  failure  to  do  so  hinders  the  work  of  the  school 
and  trespasses  upon  the  rights  of  others.  Parents  also 
often  need  to  learn  the  same  lesson.  "I  keep  my  boy 
home  because  I  need  him/'  says  a  father.  A  mother 
keeps  her  daughter  home  because  she  has  a  dress- 
maker in  the  house.  "  Surely  a  day  or  so  cannot  make 
much  difference/'  she  says.  Parents  delay  their  return 
in  September  from  the  seashore,  explaining,  "If  the 


3io  TEACHING:    ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS 

children  are  a  week  or  two  late  it  will  not  make  much 
difference.  They  will  easily  catch  up."  Underlying 
all  this  is  the  thought  still  prevalent  with  many 
parents:  "It  is  my  child  and  I  have  a  right  to  do  what 
I  please  with  him." 

The  state  has  long  since  established  the  fallacy  of 
this  reasoning  by  enacting  laws  protecting  children 
from  the  brutality  of  parents,  and  laws  regarding  child 
labor  and  school  attendance.  Parents  should  be  im- 
pressed with  the  fact  that  irregularity  of  attendance 
is  a  wrong  to  the  child,  a  wrong  to  the  other  pupils,  who 
are  hindered  in  their  work,  and  a  wrong  to  the  state, 
which  is  furnishing  the  opportunity  for  education  and 
which  has  a  right  to  expect  the  best  results. 

(a)  Cheating.  —  Not  enough  attention  is  paid  to  the 
great  school  evil  of  dishonesty.  I  have  known  it  to 
be  winked  at  by  the  teacher  in  order  that  her  class 
might  make  a  better  showing  with  the  school  authori- 
ties. I  once  took  charge  of  a  school  in  New  York 
State  that  was  under  the  control  of  the  Board  of 
Regents.  It  is  well  known  that  their  regulations  re- 
garding examinations  are  very  explicit.  And  yet  the 
violation  of  those  rules  was  most  common.  There 
had  grown  up  one  code  of  morals  for  the  school  and 
another  for  life.  I  heard  some  of  my  pupils  testify 
in  prayer-meeting  and  saw  them  cheat  the  next  day 
in  their  school  work.  And  yet  I  never  held  those 
young  people  accountable  for  their  dishonesty,  for 
their  teachers  had  violated  the  express  rules  of  the 
Regents  in  order  to  make  a  good  showing  and  the 
pupils  knew  it.  I  say  that  I  did  not  hold  them 
accountable,  for  when  the  enormity  of  the  evil  was 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION   IN   THE    SCHOOL  311 

pointed  out  to  them  they  were  appalled  and  gen- 
erally ceased  from  its  further  practice. 

Children  should  be  taught  that  cheating  is  pure 
deception,  is  lying,  is  stealing,  and  that  in  the  final 
analysis  they  are  wronging  themselves.  If  the  teacher 
herself  shows  her  honesty  and  integrity,  and  trusts 
her  pupils  to  do  right,  most  of  them  will  respond. 
A  distinction  should  be  clearly  made  between  cheating, 
lying,  and  stealing,  which  are  sins  against  God's  law, 
and  whispering,  tattling,  and  irregularity,  which  are 
violations  of  the  teacher's  restrictions. 

(b)  The  discipline.  —  Discipline  should  be  not  a 
temporary  makeshift,  but  a  steady,  persistent,  con- 
scientious effort  to  correct  faults  and  establish  good 
habits  in  the  children.  The  moral  aim  should  be  the 
basis  of  all  school  work  whether  it  be  in  the  class  exer- 
cises, the  recreations,  or  the  discipline.  Obedience 
to  the  laws  of  the  home,  of  the  school,  of  the  state, 
of  nature,  and  of  God  should  be  thoroughly  inculcated, 
so  that  the  child  does  right  from  an  inner  impulse, 
until  later  he  is  able  to  govern  himself.  When  this 
attitude  has  been  reached,  pupil  government  will  be 
possible,  and  will  be  a  healthful  means  of  stimulating 
and  fixing  moral  life. 

What  to  Teach.  —  It  is  impossible  within  the  limits 
of  this  work  to  answer  this  question  in  detail.  For 
such  detailed  discussion  the  reader  must  turn  to  works 
on  this  subject.  Every  teacher  should  possess  a 
handbook  on  moral  instruction  as  a  guide  in  this 
important  work.1  I  may  suggest,  however,  at  least 

1  I  recommend  the  following  among  the  many  works  in  this  subject: 
Clark— "Systematic  Moral  Instruction,"  A.  S.  Barnes  Co.,  New  York, 


312  TEACHING:     ITS   AIMS  AND   METHODS 

the  following  topics  which  should  be  presented  to  the 
pupils  from  time  to  time,  with  plenty  of  suitable  illus- 
tration. Much  of  the  material  for  illustration  will  be 
gathered  by  the  teacher  from  her  own  daily  experi- 
ences, and  from  books,  as  has  already  been  shown. 
Clark  discusses  many  topics,  giving  maxims,  proverbs, 
texts,  and  quotations  bearing  upon  each,  which  are 
to  be  memorized.  For  example, 

On  Obedience: 

"  True  obedience  neither  procrastinates  nor  questions. 

On  Kindness: 

"Kind  words  can  never  die, 

Cherished  and  blest, 
God  knows  how  deep  they  lie, 
Stored  in  the  breast." 

On  Courtesy: 

"Courtesy  is  to  do  and  say, 
The  kindest  things  in  the  kindest  way." 

On  Friendship: 

"When  you  find  one  good  and  true, 
Change  not  the  old  friend  for  the  new." 

At  least  these  topics  should  be  treated:  cheerfulness, 
cleanliness,  friendship,  fair  play,  helpfulness,  gratitude, 
charity,  honesty,  thrift,  courage,  honor,  truthfulness, 
temperance,  good  habits,  duty,  obedience,  self-control, 
service.  These  and  many  others  should  be  adapted 
to  the  child's  actual  experience  and  he  should  be  given 
practice  in  each. 

offers    an    excellent   arrangement  of  topics   for   each   grade.     Shearer  — 
"Morals  and  Manners,"  Macmillan   Co.,   New  York.     Adler — "Moral 
Instruction  of  Children,"  Appleton,  New  York.     "  Ethics  of  Success,"  - 
Readers  I,  II,  III,  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  New  York. 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION    IN    THE    SCHOOL  313 

Such  instruction  is  surely  needed  in  the  American 
public  schools,  and  if  pursued  with  intelligence,  in  a 
proper  spirit  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  with  an 
understanding  of  its  great  need,  it  is  likely  to  receive 
the  cooperation  of  parents  and  thus  be  of  inestimable 
value  in  shaping  the  lives  of  our  future  citizens.  A 
republic  cannot  long  continue  whose  citizenship  is 
wanting  in  either  intelligence  or  moral  rectitude. 


INDEX 


Abelard,  as  a  teacher,  39 
Accounts,  of  the  farm,  274 
Accuracy,  in  teaching  reading,  152 

in  teaching  arithmetic,  194 
Agriculture,  instruction  in,  262 
Aims,  in  teaching  reading,  146 

in  teaching  language,  163 
Alcohol,  instruction  concerning,  226 
Altruistic  motive,  of  the  teacher,  36 
Apperception,  Herbartian,  interpre- 
tation of,  132 

Aristoth,  on  method,  4,  142 
Arithmetic,  importance  of,  190 

methods  in  teaching  of,  196 

must  be  practical,  200 
Arnold,  Thomas,  as  a  teacher,  39 
Art.  of  teaching,  8,  63 
Associations,  of  teachers,  47 
Attendance,  irregular,  a  drawback, 

74 
regularity  of,  fosters  morals,  296 

Bacon,      discovery     of     inductive 

method,  142 
Backward  children,  a  hindrance  to 

the  school,  73 
problem  of,  75 

Balliet,  on  training  the  muscles,  237 
Basketry,  in  manual  training,  244 
Beecher,  88,  298 
Boards     of     education,    encourage 

professional  growth,  51 
often  employ  cheap  teachers,  62 
Born  teacher,  18,  38 
Brass  work  in  manual  training,  246 
Butler,  on  German  schools,  20 

Capitals,  in  teaching  spelling,  159 
Charlemagne,    universal    education 

of,  5 
Cheating,    from   moral   standpoint, 

3i° 
Chicago,  death  rate  of,  217 


Child,  the,  what  it  should  know,  59 
stories  for,  in  reading,  153 
care  of,  in  the  home,  260 

Christ,  as  a  teacher,  4 
method  of,  8,  119 

Citizenship,  preparation  for,  36,  no, 

3i3 

Claxton,  on  normal  graduates,  22 
on  school  attendance,  178 
on  the  school  farm,  276 
Clay-modeling,  in  manual  training, 

244 

Clearness,  essential  in  reading.  151 
"  Clever  Hans,"  195 
Clothing,    knowledge    of    essential, 

259 
Cochran,  on  preparation  of  foods, 

255 

Colonization,  of  feeble-minded,  85 
Comenius,  "Orbis  Pictus"  of,  152 

aphorism  of,  166 
Committee  of  Fifteen,  on  geography, 

169 
Composition,  use  of  in  spelling,  159 

use  of  in  language  work,  165 

the  teaching  of,  168 
Concentric  plan,  in  arithmetic,  197 
Concrete,  care  in  use  of,  64 
Confucius,  as  a  teacher,  39 
Contagious  diseases,  222 
Continuation  schools,  283 
Control,  of  school  must  be  kept,  97 
Cooking,  importance  of,  256 
Copper- work,   in   manual   training, 

246 

Corporal  punishment,  107 
Courses,  pedagogical,  51 

eliminations  from,  58 

flexibility  of,  88 

in  geography,  175 

in  Trenton  model  school,  202 

in  household  arts,  244 

comprehensiveness  of,  301 


INDEX 


Criticism,  of  our  schools,  54 

of  teaching  spelling,  155 

injustice  of,  231 

in  earlier  times,  277 
Crito,  selection  from,  115 
Crops,  of  different  countries  com- 
pared, 268 

rotation  of,  270 

change  of,  271 
Culture  epoch  theory,  242 

Dairy,  study  of  products  of,  273 

Darwin,  88 

De  Garmo,  on  induction,  143 

Deductive  method,  144 

Defective  children,  75 

Deportment  marks,  105 

Dewey,  John,  74 

Dictionary,  use  of  in  spelling,  159 

Diesterweg,  on  method,  133 

Discipline,  from  moral  standpoint, 

3ii 
Diseases,  contagious,  222 

knowledge    of    essential    to    the 

teacher,  258 
Domestic  science,  need  of  teaching 

of,  57 

discussion  of,  250 

Drama t  i/al  ion ,  in  language  work,  166 
Drawing,  in  manual  training,  245 
Drill,  not  to  be  neglected,  64 
in  pronunciation  and  reading,  151 
in  spelling,  158 

Drink,     compared     with     use     of 
tobacco,  228 

Eating,   knowledge  concerning  de- 
ficient, 224 

Economics,  of  the  home,  252 

Education,  science  of,  3 
progress  of,  41 

Educational  journals,  43 

Efficiency,    affected    by    backward 

children,  75 

in  teaching  spelling,  160 
in  educational  practice,  277 

Equipment,  of  school,  67 

Elimination,  from  course  of  study, 

58 

Eliot,  on  manual  training,  239 
Employment,  influence  upon  morals 

of,  303 


Environment,  influence  of,  36 
effect  upon  language,  162 
influence  upon  morals,  303 

Excursions,  in  geography  teaching, 

173 
Expense,   of    maintaining    schools, 

60 

Expulsion,  as  punishment,  166 
Eyesight,  defects  in,  219 

Faculty  meetings,  46 

Farm,  migration  from,  262 
accounts  of  to  be  kept,  274 

Farm  boys,  as  teachers,  26 

Feeble-minded,  colonization  of,  85 

Fertilizers,  knowledge  of,  necessary, 
269 

Fiction,    use   in   moral    instruction, 
304 

Firmness,  in  discipline,  99 

First-aid,  to  be  taught,  259 

Food,   knowledge  concerning,    222, 
244 

Foods,  preparation  of,  255 
harmony  of,  257 

Foreign-born  children,  78 

France,    abolition    of    religious    in- 
struction in,  293 

Francke,  on  training  teachers,  5 

Franklin,  143 

Froebel,  the  kindergarten,  5 
self-activity  of,  19 

Garden,  the  school,  274 

Gary,  schools  of,  72 

Geography,  former  limitations  of,  56 

scope  of,  169 

aims  of,  1 70 

German  methods,  19,  126 
German  teachers,  efficiency  of,  140 
Gettysburg,  battle  of,  35 
Girls,  as  teachers,  27 
Goddard,  on  the  feeble-minded,  85 
Grammar,  method  of  teaching  of,  167 

necessity  of,  163 
Grammar  grades,  course  of  study  in, 

186 

Greece,  idea  of  education  in,  4 
Greenwood,  on  pedagogical  litera- 
ture, 6 
Growth,  in  teaching,  41 

means  of,  43 


INDEX 


317 


Hall,  on  manual  training,  239 
Hamilton,  on  science,  2 
Harris,  on  Pestalozzi,  5 

on  the  teaching  of  history,  178 
Health,  duty  of  school  regarding,  217 
Heating,  defective,  220 
Herbart,  educational  science  of,  5 
Herbartian  movement,  132 
Hinsdale,  on  teaching  history,  178 
History,  the  teaching  of,  1 78 

aims  and  values  of,  180 

methods  in  teaching  of,  182 
Holden,  on  practical  education,  267 
Home,  changed  attitude  of,  57 

influence  of  upon  English,  162 

training  girls  for,  249 
Home  economy,  meaning  of,  250 
Home  geography,  172 

scope  of,  254 
Home-project  plan  of  Massachusetts, 

265 
Hopkins,  Mark,  as  a  teacher,  39 

personality  of,  133 
Household  arts,  training  in,  248 
Hunger,  of  school  children,  69 
Hygiene,  instruction  in,  217 

Ideals,  to  be  implanted,  34 
Illinois,  vocational  schools  in,  285 
Immigrants,  education  of,  34 
Incorrigibles,  79 
Industrial  arts,  school  of,  79,  87 

industrial  conditions,  231 
Insects,  study  of,  271 
Institutes,  for  teachers,  50 
Instruction,  methods  of,  135 

in  agriculture,  262 

in  morals,  292 

Intemperance,  frequent  cause  of,  218 
Intermediate  grades,  history  in,  183 

James,  on  shop- work,  241 
Jena,  battle  of,  140,  184 

field  trip  of  boys  from,  172 
Jews,  training  of  children  of,  183 

Keller,  Helen,  120 

Kendall,  on  teachers  for  defectives, 

84 
on  criticism  of  schools,  278 

Knowledge,  first  essential  in  teach- 
ing, 15 


Knowledge  of  subject-matter,  134 
of  foods  necessary,  218 

Lake  Placid  Conference  on  domestic 

arts,  253 
Landon,  on  the  use  of  grammar,  163 

on  composition,  168 
Lange,  Karl,  132 
Language,  training  in,  162 

aims  in,  163 

lessons  in,  164 
Lecture  method,  139 
Leipsic,  battle  of,  35 

lessons  on  foods  in  school  of,  224 
Letter- writing,  the  teaching  of,  166 
Lincoln,  call  for  troops  of,  32 
Lindsay,  work  with  boys  of,  32 
Literature,  reading  of  by  teachers, 
46 

suitable  for  children,  151,  153 

aids  in  moral  instruction,  304 
Livelihood,  a  motive  for  becoming  a 

teacher,  25 

Local  teachers'  meetings,  49 
Locke,  John,  theory  of,  19 
Lyon,  Mary,  as  a  teacher,  39 

Macaulay,  on  Bacon,  142 
McAlister,  on  manual  training,  231, 

234 

McMaster,  on  history,  180,  181 
Mann,    Horace,    Seventh    Annual 
Report  of,  130 

fallacy  of  A  B  C  method,  50 
Manual  training,  importance  of,  231 

definition  of,  233 

aim  of,  238 

place  of,  239 

methods  and  topics  in,  242 

formerly  cared  for  in  the  home,  79 
Map-drawing,  196 
Marden,  on  efficiency,  88 
Marketing,  knowledge  of  necessary, 

256 

Material,  selection  of  in  reading,  153 
McMurry,    Special     Methods     of, 
146 

on  teaching  geography,  170,  176 

on  teaching  history,  179,  188 
Medical  inspection,  65,  299 
Meetings,  of  teachers,  46 
Mentally  subnormals,  80 


INDEX 


Method,  definition  of,  132 

essentials  of,  134 

lecture  method,  139 

inductive,  142 

deductive,  144 
Methods,  waste  in  wrong,  62 

progress  in,  124 

of  instruction,  135 

in  teaching  reading,  149 

in  teaching  spelling,  157 

in  teaching  language,  164 

in  teaching  history,  182 

in  teaching  arithmetic,  196 
Metal-working,  in  manual  training, 

245 

Milk,  testing  of,  273 
Model  school,  course  in  arithmetic 

of,  202 
Moral  instruction,  means  of,  295 

what  to  teach,  3 1 2 
Morals,  instruction  in,  292 

employment  aids  in  fixing,  300 
Motives,  for  becoming  a  teacher,  24 

altruistic  motives,  36 

Napoleon,  conquest  of  Germany  of, 

3<J,  139,  185 

Narcotics,  dangers  of,  227 
Naturalness,    to    be    cultivated    in 

reading,  152 

Newark,  industrial  school  of,  87,  99 
New  Jersey,  certificating  of  teachers 

in,  40 

report  on  backward  children,  78 
report  on  colonization,  85 
course  in  arithmetic  of,  191 
destruction  of  crops  in,  272 
definition  of  vocational  schools  of, 

284 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  42,  88 
Noise,  proper  and  improper,  98 
Nolan,  on  destructive  insects,  272 
Normal  schools,   conditions  of  ad- 
mission to,  40 
course  in  arithmetic  of,  201 
Nurse,  school,  223 

Obedience,  natural  a.nd    necessary, 

93 
Oral  work,  for  little  children,  135 

in  spelling,  158 

in  arithmetic,  19$ 


Order,  maintenance  of,  91 

what  it  is,  95 

Organizations,  of  teachers,  6 
O'Shea,  on  manual  training,  240 
Oswego  normal  school,  131 
Overton,  on  intemperance  in  eating, 
224 

Parables,  of  Christ,  9 
Parents,  attitude  of  towards  nar- 
cotics, 229 
Parker,  Col.,  work  of,  113 

on  Horace  Mann,  130 

inaugurated  the  Quincy  methods, 

131 

Partiality,  little  danger  of,  101 
Part-time  work,  discussion  of,  265, 

289 

Pasteur,  143 
Patriotic  motive,  32 
Pedagogical  literature,  44,  51 

courses  in,  51 
Personality,    of    the    teacher,    38, 

133 
Penmanship,  not  to  be  neglected, 

281 

Pestalozzi,  on  education,  4,  5 
follower  of  Christ's  method,  10 
as  a  teacher,  39 
method  of,  62 
on  method,  132 
personality  of,  133 
Pfiingst,  on  "Clever  Hans,"  195 
Physical  defectives,  79 
Physician,  school,  223 
Physics,  need  of  greater  knowledge 

of,  56 

Physiology,  instruction  in,  217 
Plato,  on  education,  4 
Prevocational  schools,  283 
Primary  grades,  history  in,  182 
Privileges,  deprivation  of,  105 
Professional  growth,  49 
Provincialisms,  to  be  corrected,  151 
Prussia,  defeat  of  in  1806,  35 
Public     health,     duty     of     school 

towards,  217 

Publishers,  enterprise  of,  148 
Punishments,  discussion  of,  100 
principles  concerning,  103 
kinds  of,  103 
corporal,  107  ^ 


INDEX 


319 


Questioning,  art  of,  in 
Questions,  characteristics  of,  118 
Quincy,   efficiency   of   methods   of, 

H3,  131 
Quintilian,  on  method,  5 

Reading,  of  educational  journals,  43 

of  standard  educational  works,  44 

of  general  literature,  46 

aims  in,  146 

methods  in,  149 

as  to  content  and  form,  281 
Recitation,  use  of  text-book  in,  112 
Rein,  on  Froebel  and  Herbart,  5 
Religion  and  morals,  instruction  in, 

293 

Reproof,  as  punishment,  104 
Richards,  on  home  economics,  254 
Rosenkranz,  114.  134 
Rowe,  on  death-rate,  217 

on  defective  eyesight,  220 

on  defective  hearing,  221 
Rules,  to  be  few,  96 

in  spelling,  159 
Rural  schools,  decrease  of,  108 

improvement  of,  264 

Salaries,  of  men  and  women,  30 
of  teachers,  janitors,  etc.,  60 
Sanitation,  knowledge  of  necessary, 

258 

Schaeffer,  on  moral  instruction,  305 

School,  a  social  center,  70 
duty  of  as  to  public  health,  217 
study  of  agriculture  in,  263 
improvement  in,  264 
must  meet  new  demands,  282 

School  gardens,  263,  274 

Schools,  vacation,  72 
supplementary  and  continuation, 
283 

Schmidt,  Karl,  4 

Science  of  teaching,  discussion  of,  62 

Scobey,  course  in  arithmetic  of,  201 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  88 

Seeds,  study  of,  268 

Self-activity,  19 

Self-improvement,  as  motive  for  b«- 
coming  a  teacher,  30 

Self-sacrifice,  demanded  of  teacher, 
37 

Sequence,  of  topic*,  197 


Servants,  treatment  of,  260 

Six-and-six  plan,  286 

Smith,  "Systematic  Methodology" 

of,  142 

Social  center,  the  school  as,  70 
Socrates,  as  a  teacher,  39 

personality  of,  133 
Socratic  method,  illustration  of,  114 
Soils,  study  of,  268 
Special  classes,  82 
Spelling,  place  of,  155 

aims  in  teaching  of,  156 

methods  and  devices  in,  156 
Spelling-bee,  160 
Spelling  book,  need  of,  155 
Spencer,  Herbert,  101 
Spiral  plan,  in  arithmetic,  197 
Sports,  moral  ideals  from,  307 
Springfield,  historic  examinations  in, 

55 
Stoy,  field  trip  with  school  of,  172 

on  repetition,  196 
Subnormal  children,  75 
Summer  schools,  for  teachers,  51 
Suspension ,  as  a  punishment,  106 
System,  in  teaching  spelling,  158 

Teacher,  attitude  of  towards  nar- 
cotics, 229 

character  of,  295 

growth  of,  38 

for  subnormals,  83 

must  keep  control,  97 

must  discover  defectives,  219,  220 

personality  of,  36,  133 

the  born  teacher,  18,  38 
Teachers,  American,  method  of,  140 

appreciation  of  weakness  of,  57 

need  of,  22 

new  teachers,  29 

untrained  teachers,  23 

meetings  of,  46,  47 

institutes  for,  50 

training  schools  for,  50 

German,  efficiency  of,  140 

unfit,  waste  from,  60 
Teachers'  associations,  6 
Teaching,  tendency  of  to  narrow,  49 

growth  in  needed,  41 

definition  of,  i,  14 

as  an  art,  8 

as  a  science,  2 


320 


INDEX 


Temperance,  instruction  in,  225 
Text-books,  free,  68 

on  temperance,  227 

supplementary,  148 

use  of  in  history,  183 

use  of  in  the  recitation,  112 
Tobacco,  compared  to  strong  drink, 
228 

danger  of  to  children,  229 
Trade  school,  definition  of,  237 
Training,  in  reading,  153 

in  language,  162 
Transportation,  problem  of,  68 
Three  R's,  proper  place  of,  280 
Trenton,    course    in    arithmetic    in 

model  school  of,  202 
Tuition,  when  first  charged,  68 

Universities,  preparation  of  teachers 

in,  7 
study  of  agriculture  in,  263 

Vacation,  schools  for,  72 

drawback  of  long  ones,  71 
Vermont,    legislative    investigation 

in,  17 

Vineland,  summer  school  at,  82 
Vocational  schools,  284 
Von  Moltke,  on  the  German  school- 
master, 35 


War,    offers   few   opportunities    to 

show  patriotism,  32 
Warner,  on  reading,  154 
Waste,  an  American  characteristic, 

S3 

in  selection  of  material,  54 
in  employment  of  unfit  teachers, 

60 

in  wrong  methods,  62 
from  physical  -conditions,  65 
from   limited   use  of  the   school 

plant,  70 

from  too  much  repetition,  136 
other  causes  of,  73 
White,  on  language  training,  164 
on  grammar,  167 
on  home  geography,  175 
on  arithmetic,  194 
Wisconsin,   work   of   in   vocational 

education,  285 

Women,  enlarged  sphere  of,  248 
Woodward,  on    the    trade    school, 

237 

on  manual  training,  243 
Written  work,  in  method,  157 
in  spelling,  158 
in  arithmetic,  198 

York,    Pa.,    part-time    schools   of, 
288 


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